مجله زبانشناسی و گویش های خراسان
پیاپی 13 (پاییز و زمستان 1394)

All languages have different terms for expressing kinship relations and it seems that beyond these differences one can find similarities in the different systems of kinship terms. Morgan (1871) is the first anthropologist who studied kinship systems in different languages and came to this conclusion that kinship systems reflect social systems. Mordoch (1949) another anthropologist, distinguished 6 different patterns in kinship systems. Most anthropologists put their emphasis on studying members of a canonical family including father and mother, sister and brother, son and daughter, wife and husband.
On the other hand, Kroeber (1909) believed that kinship systems are linguistic systems, so they must be studied using linguistic methods. His concern was finding semantic categories that were expressed by kinship terms. He distinguished 8 semantic categories and believed that by using them one can describe kinship terms and their meanings. This was a preface to componential analysis.
Greenberg (1966) used the concept of markedness to study the cognitive-linguistic system of kinship terms. By studying kinship terms in more than 120 languages, he suggested kin terms markedness hierarchies, namely the following: “an ascending kin term is unmarked ] against a descending kin term of equal genealogical distance from the anchor ; a kin term descending lineal kinship is unmarked against the one denoting collateral kinship; and a kin term denoting a kin type of a generation more remote from the anchor is marked against a kin term denoting a kin type of a generation less remote from the anchor.”
According to Hage (1999) the importance of Greenberg’s work lies in these: a. He paid attention to the effect of social and cognitive factors in forming kinship systems, b. He provided a method for diachronic study of kinship terms, and c. By studying the prototype effects on forming kinship systems, he created a link between anthropology and cognitive sciences.
In the second part of this paper I am going to describe and explain the historical development of kinship terms in Persian and show the effects of the loss of gender inflection on these terms.
In Old Iranian period, all members of a canonical family including father, mother, sister, brother, daughter, son, wife, and husband have distinct terms: napāt (grandson) , pitar (father) , pussa (son) , (puθra Avs.), brātar (brother), mātar (mother), hamātar (having one mother) hamapitar (having one father) (Kent, 1950).
Since in Old Iranian period there is a patrilineal descent system (a system in which an individual is considered to belong to the same descent group as his or her father), father’s sisters and brothers have also distinct terms, their difference is marked by gender inflection: tūirya (father’s brother), (father's sister) tūiryā. There are no such terms in the texts for the maternal side.
Middle Iranian period is characterized by the reduced inflection of the noun and verb, so the gender distinction in kin terms must have been marked in a different way. There are no records of terms related to father’s and mother’s sisters and brothers in middle Iranian period. There are only records of the canonical family kin terms: xvāhar (sister), pitar (father), mātar (mother) , pus (son) , duxt (daughter) , duxtar (daughter), brātar (brother), zan (wife), (Frahvashi,1378)
In new Persian period again we have canonical family kin terms. Besides,, distinct terms for father’s and mother’s sisters and brothers (i.e. xâle, dâyi, amme, amu) are borrowed from Turkish and Arabic. These terms mark gender and generation distinctions.
As for the non-canonical kin terms, we have paternal kin terms in Old Persian on the one hand and the paternal and maternal kin terms in New Persian borrowed from Arabic and Turkish on the other hand. There is a gap in the development of these kin terms in Middle period. It seems that investigating Iranian dialects and having a closer look at Middle Iranian texts may help us recover these terms.
This state of affairs shows that for Persian speakers gender distinction in kin terms is crucial. After the language has lost its inflectional gender system, Persian speakers have compensated this loss by borrowing from a language which already had this gender distinction, but the borrowed words show the gender distinction lexically.
In the end, it must be added that from a typological point of view, kinship terms in Persian correspond to markedness hierarchies suggested by Greenberg.

1- The literature review of Persian suffixes show that “-i, -in, -ineh, -gan, -ganeh, -aneh, and -iyeh/yeh” are attributive suffixes. Linguistic evidences show that once these suffixes are added to a word, in addition to the central senses of “related to” and “attributed to”, they add peripheral sense such as possession, similarity, possibility, obligation, origin, direction, goal, rank, manner, limit, quantity, intermediary, and so on to some words. Such secondary senses are actually related to pragmatics. The way the main senses are related to the pragmatic ones is the subject of study of morphopragmatics which explains the pragmatic roles of words within morphological process and in relation with other words. The aim of the present research is the morphopragmatical study of attribution derivational suffixes in Persian in terms of Jurafsky radial model (1996).
2- Theoretical Framework: Lakoff (1987) argues in his idealized cognitive model (ICM) that words show radial categories. Following Lakoff’s radial category model, Jurafsky (1996) performed a typological study of “diminutive” in different languages in terms of morphopragmatics and proposed that semantic expansion and relation can be a reason for the plurality of pragmatic characteristics. He came to the conclusion that the numerous meanings of diminutive affixes are extensions of the central senses of child/small/female gender which are related to the main meanings of child/small/female gender through different semantic change mechanisms such as metaphor, inference, generalization, and lambda-abstraction.
The radial category is a graphic representation of a polysemous category, composed of a central and main meaning of “prototype”, which is represented in a network of nodes and links through the expansion of its meaning. Nodes show meanings, and links show metamorphic extensions, transfer in terms of mental overall plans, transfer to different domains, or inference. Therefore, once interpreted as a synchronic phenomenon, the radial category describes active relations among the notions of a polysemous category, and once interpreted as a diachronic phenomenon, it reaches expansions on different mechanisms of semantic change.
3- The methodology of the present research is descriptive-analytical, with both library and field data collection methods. The data for the present research are collected from the spoken (conversational) and written versions of the Persian language in different ways. At the beginning, we used some Persian dictionaries such as Ravaghi Dictionary of Persian Suffixes (2009), Farshidvard Dictionary of Persian Prefixes and Suffixes (2007), The Zansou Kashani Persian Dictionary (1993), and Suffix Derivation in Contemporary Persian Language (Kashani, 1992). We used suffix derivative words (attributive suffixes) for note taking on cards. We also used the daily conversation of persons in different contexts and situations for finding out suffixes which are used in everyday conversational Persian. We named different usages of suffixes based on Syntax Patterns in the Persian Language (Sameei and Tafsiri, 2004). We also made some innovations based on prior researches.
4- The study of attributive affixes show that the main and central sense of these affixes has always been “attribution”, and that they are used in the meaning of “related to” or “attributed to”. However, in the contemporary Persian language, in addition to this central sense, affixes have got other different pragmatic senses which have been derived from the main sense through different mechanisms in different eras based on different needs of speakers. Furthermore, the analysis of data and drawing of the radial diagram of attributive suffixes showed that some of their pragmatic senses overlap with the semantic domains of other derivative suffixes such as diminutive, similarity, and place suffixes.
5- Conclusions & Suggestions: The overlapping of the pragmatic senses of attributive suffixes with other derivative suffixes of the Persian language shows network links between different linguistic senses which have always been in continuous interaction all through the history. The relation nodes among the semantic network of words are so interconnected that sometimes the prominence of one relation leads to the prominence of some other relational branches, in a way that different meanings are conveyed to mind. Language works in terms of a network all through its history, a complicated and heavily interconnected network which leads to the creation of different meanings and applications in language. In some cases, the pragmatic meaning of an attributive suffix overlaps with the meaning and application of other attributive suffixes or even that of other suffixes of the Persian language such as suffixes of similarity, description, possession, and diminutive. All suffixes subject to this study (“-i, -in, -ineh, -gan, -ganeh, -aneh, and -iyeh/yeh, či, eki, and ou) rotate around one network and are correlated in some way. Another important point is that the process of semantic change in the attributive suffixes of the Persian language conforms to the “unidirectionality of semantic change” claim of Lak off (1987) and Jurafsky (1996) radial model, i.e., diachronically speaking, the meanings of the attributive suffixes of the Persian language are expanded from the central meanings to peripherial ones of the category.

1- Birjandi dialect is one of eastern Iran dialects. Compared to standard Persian, this dialect is more diverse and vast in terms of using verb, and it has morphological varieties and diverse forms that cannot be observed in Persian and other dialects. Syntax of Birjandi dialect follows the principles of Persian sentence making, and the main difference between Birjandi dialect and standard Persian lies in phonology and morphology (Rashed Mohassel, 1998).
In this paper, in addition to studying aspect and its types in Persian, durative lexical aspect in compound verbs in Birjandi dialect is investigated. Furthermore, Corresponding compound verbs with the light verb of “kardan” [do] and “dashtan” [have], and continuous lexical aspect in these verbs in Birjandi dialect would be dealt with.
2- Theoretical framework: Aspect is a main feature of the structure of Indo-European languages. Today it distinctly exists only in Slavic and Greek languages, and in other Indo-European languages aspect is in contrast with the concept of tense. In this work, lexical aspect in Birjandi dialect is investigated and the categorization of lexical aspect made by Abolhasanai (2011) and Golfam (2006) is used as the framework of the study.
The lexical aspect of a verb is a part of the way in which that verb is structured in relation to time. (Comrie1976:3) Any event, state, process, or action which a verb expresses (collectively, any eventuality) may also be said to have the same lexical aspect. Lexical aspect is distinguished from grammatical aspect: lexical aspect is an inherent property of a (semantic) eventuality, whereas grammatical aspect is a property of a (syntactic or morphological) realization. Lexical aspect is invariant, while grammatical aspect can be changed according to the whims of the speaker. (Bybee 2003:157)
According to Abolhasani (2011, p. 102), aspect shows the process of doing the verb in terms of continuity, repetition, and duration, and lexical aspect is in contrast with grammatical aspect. Lexical aspect is obtained from verb’s lexical features and grammatical aspect is taken by verb during its inflexion. Golfam (2006, p. 74) believes that lexical aspect is of four types, including punctual, durative, stative and dynamic.
In the initial categorization of lexical aspect, Abolhasani (2011) refers to situational- and not morphological- distinction between stative and dynamic verbs. He divides dynamic verbs into two groups of punctual and durative, and {according to Cameri’s categorization (1976)} divides them into two groups of telic and atelic.
3- By using categorizations of Abolhasani and Golfam as the theoretical framework of the study, Birjandi compound verbs were studied. Data consisted of sixty corresponding compound verbs with the light verb of “kardan” and “dashtan” and the sentences in which these verbs were used. These corresponding verbs were compared in terms of being stative or dynamic, punctual or durative, and telic or atelic. The data were chosen based on the author’s linguistic intuition and among compound verbs of standard Persian compared to Birjandi dialect, and their sentences were made by native speakers of this dialect.
Based on lexical aspect and the type of situation, data were divided into two groups: a) activities, b) achievements. Several examples of these two groups of verbs were presented and their aspect and semantic differences were taken into account. Data show that in Birjandi dialect compound verbs with the light verb of “kardan” are in contrast with their corresponding compound verbs with the light verb of “dashtan”. These corresponding verbs are different from each other in terms of lexical aspect.
4- Data related to activities are expressed in the form of ten sentences. In these data, compound verbs, which express the activity and have dynamic, durative and atelic lexical aspect, are in contrast with each other with two light verbs of “kardan” and “dashtan”. Although it seems that, in these samples, lexical aspect has not changed, in compound verbs with the light verb of “dashtan” there is more emphasis on the continuity and duration of action over time. Therefore, continuation of action and as a result durative aspect of these corresponding verbs are different for Birjandi speakers.
Data of the second group (achievements) consist of fifty sentences, reflecting higher frequency of this group of verbs. These data show that compound verbs with the light verb of “kardan” have dynamic, punctual and atelic lexical aspect, however, their corresponding compound verbs with the light verb of “dashtan” possess dynamic, durative and atelic lexical aspect. Thus, using the light verb of “dashtan” in this group of compound verbs creates durative lexical aspect instead of punctual lexical aspect, and atelic lexical aspect instead of telic lexical aspect.
Therefore, it can be said that in Birjandi dialect there is aspectual difference between corresponding compound verbs with the light verb of “kardan” and “dashtan”, and compound verbs with the light verb of “kardan” possess durative and atelic aspect. Furthermore, as Estaji has stated, this aspect in Tehrani dialect is not as frequent as in Birjandi dialect, and just a few verbs of this type can be mentioned. However, regarding systematic representation of durative aspect in Birjandi dialect by using compound verbs with the light verb of “dashtan” instead of the light verb of “kardan”, it seems that this aspect can be traced and investigated in other dialects of Persian too.
5- Data of this study show that corresponding compound verbs with the light verb of “kardan” and “dashtan” in Birjandi dialect have two different aspects, and the use of the light verb of “dashtan” in such compound verbs expresses two aspectual concept of “atelicity” and “duration of action”. Therefore, “dashtan” in such compound verbs has an aspectual function, adds the sense of duration and continuity of action to the verb and turns punctual and telic verbs into durative and atelic ones. This point is in line with Khanlari’s (1998) idea regarding using such verbs in Old Persian and shows that Birjandi dialect has maintained this aspect up to the present time.

1- Reading is recognized as the essential part of scientific learning and development of awareness, the basis for teaching other language skills, and one of the most important goals of teaching language. Bernhard believes that reading is the only goal of learning a foreign language.
Reading is the process of perceiving and interpreting encoded information through writing. Bernstein and Tigermann consider reading as the product of cognitive and language abilities as well as previous knowledge. In their opinion, the reader should employ processes such as audio-visual perception, cognitive abilities (attention and memory), language knowledge and past experience in order to establish a connection between printed letters and their meaning.
In teaching reading programs, teachers must be aware of the important connection between reader, reading and development of other language skills. They should consider reading as the central language skill in teaching and then, through effective reading instruction, promote the development of other language skills.
2- Theoretical framework: Cognitive, spoken and visual processes are counted as the processes involved in reading comprehension. Eye movements and brain activity during reading, considered to be among visual processes, have provided the utmost information on reading approaches.
Grabe divides processes affecting reading comprehension into low and high levels. Low level processes include phonological encoding, lexical retrieval, syntactic segmentation and semantic encoding by syntactic information and word meaning. High-level processes involve using prior knowledge and global knowledge. On this basis, bottom-up and top-down approaches are formed and an interactive approach to reading is developed by combining them. Interactive approach is regarded as the most comprehensive description of the process of reading. Each of the three approaches includes different models and Neil Anderson has proposed the most systematic model of teaching reading based on the interactive approach. Anderson’s model consists of six principles from the initial letters of which, the term ACTIVE is formed: 1. activate prior knowledge (A)
2. cultivate vocabulary (C)
3. teach for comprehension (T)
4. increase reading fluency (I)
5. verify reading strategies (V)
6. evaluate progress (E)
3- The four skill series Modern Teaching of Persian Language (Ghabool, 2013) which is a new teaching resource for non-Persian speakers includes six volumes of which the first to fifth one have been published. The series is now being taught in some Arabic countries and Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Center for Teaching Persian to Non-Persian Speakers. Due to the influence of this series and the major role of reading skill in language learning, reading texts of this work were evaluated on the basis of Neil Anderson's model.
The survey includes 28 lessons which enjoy reading texts. Components of each lesson are evaluated with the principles, techniques and sub-techniques of Anderson’s model and the result of evaluation is inserted on a table specific to each volume. Titles which were not used in the teaching series have been ignored in the tables.
4- Comparing data obtained from the analysis of the five volumes shows that as the students’ knowledge increases the type of exercises change and larger parts of Anderson’ model are used at higher levels. Thus, in the first volume, the focus is on cultivating vocabulary and activating prior knowledge, but from the second volume on, verifying reading strategies, increasing reading fluency and teaching for comprehension are also considered but in a lesser degree. In general, the five volumes mostly emphasize on expanding vocabulary which is affected by the bottom-up approach. The sixth principle, “evaluate progress” is ignored due to its time consuming characteristic in this four-skill teaching series.
5- Conclusion and suggestion : In Modern Teaching of Persian Language, the principles proposed by Neil Anderson have been applied in varying ratios. In terms of arrangement of teaching materials, some differences are found in the series with Anderson’s organizing and ordering of techniques and sub-techniques. For example, discussing about topic and subject which is specific to pre-reading stage has been planned after reading the text. In addition, some of Anderson’s concepts have been used with different interpretations and applications such as “thinking” which doesn’t coincide exactly with think-aloud concept discussed in the model. It should be noted that the full implementation of Anderson’s principles is easier in resources specific to reading than in four-skill teaching resources where a limited part of learning time is allocated to reading.
According to the above, it is proposed that in the future revisions of the series, principles and techniques proposed by Anderson, should be sufficiently employed for teaching reading especially in the third, fourth and fifth volumes. In addition, it is recommended that more effective efforts should be made to facilitate vocabulary learning process in each lesson.
Reading skill; processes involved in reading; bottom-up, top-down and interactive approaches

This article intends to study the phenomenon of diglossia in the formal and informal domain and also the study of age, gender, level of education and job on the application of the two languages of Persian and Turkish in Ardabil city. The research is a descriptive-survey from the viewpoint of methodology. 400 research statistical sample people were selected out of the statistical population (Ardabil city population) in form of stage sampling and based on Morgan Table .For data collection, the research questionnaire of Parasher used and for the analysis of findings, the paired samples T test and one way ANOWA were employed. The comparison of the application of Persian and Turkish in Ardabil city showed that the youth as compared with the aged, the women as compared with men, the holders of higher education as compared with those with lower higher education and the educational and administrative domains as compared with other domains have had a greater use of the Persian language accordingly.
1- Sociolinguists are interested in studying to see how the members of each society are able to display their own identity through language and how they show a suitable response vis-à-vis delicate differences of lingual applications related to social, economic, political, religious and cultural variables of the society (Spolsky, 2008). Due to the different diversity among the humans in the society, language becomes a function of these diversities with specific social species. These factors include: education, job, profession domain, age, gender, social class, register, style and media (Zandi, 2014:7-8).
Social multilingualism is a prevailing phenomenon and in the world scale, it is considered an ordinary position rather than exceptional one. In fact, in most of the countries in the world, there is more than one indigenous language is prevailing and rarely, we can find a single language country and the number of multilingual countries are much more (Trudgill, 1984).
2- Theoretical Framework: Sociolinguists have evaluated the phenomenon of lingual encounter in different societies. One of the most important subjects under discussion in this research is also the issue of lingual encounter. The phenomenon of lingual encounter leads to the formation of cases such as bilingualism, multilingualism and Diglossia in human societies. In the classic viewpoint taken from Fergusson (1959:233), diglossia phenomenon is a specific type of standard building which the two varieties of a language live together beside each other and throughout the society and each undertakes a certain role. These two varieties are called low and high varieties. One of the most important features of diglossia is the specialization of the low and high role of the standard. High varieties are used in formal textures and low varieties are used in informal textures.
Fesold (1984:40-52) also terms diglossia as jumping from one style to another style. In his view, diglossia is the feature of the societies rather than individuals. Individuals might be bilingual but societies are diglossia. In other words, the term diglossia, describes the social or formalized social bilingualism.
However, Nersesians (1995:73-80) classifies diglossia in contemporary Iran into three groups: The first group is the concurrent presence of literary Persian with verbal Persian. In her view, the second group is the most obvious and old sample of diglossia in Iran. In the article of Ferguson (1972), it has been stated as an example that in fact, there is concurrent presence of standard Persian with a local variety in the lingual set of individuals. Many Iranian still in their daily talks with their family members speak in local dialects whereas the same individuals in their own conversations with other individuals in the alleys and streets, working place etc., use the standard Persian (literary or verbal). Pursuing the expanded view of Fishman (1967:29),Nersesians believes in the presence of the diglossia phenomenon as the third type too and that is the concurrent presence of Persian language with other ethnic languages. In Iran, in addition to the Persian speaking population, there are other ethnic groups who speak their ethnic languages in their local conversations. As a result of increase of communications and conversation of Persian language into the common language of different tribes, these types of individuals are bilingual or multilingual. From the viewpoint of the situation of bilingualism, most of these efforts have passed the incomplete bilingualism and single literacy bilingualism stages and in particular have reached to the full bilingualism of the new generation. However, the bilingualism of these people even more than the condition of concurrent presence of standard Persian with a variety or a local language, has found the diglossia aspect, whereas mother tongue is used in domains such as house, friendly conversations with individuals belonging to their own lingual and tribal groups. Persian language is also employed in domains such as administrative and educational positions. In this article, we will deal with the study of the phenomenon of diglossia from the third type which was introduced in Nersesians theory.
In addition to placing the expanded theory of diglossia of Fishman to regulate a part of research data, his domain analysis has also been used. Fishman (1967) is the first person who presented the term of the domain of languages application and then Fesold(1984:183) expanded this concept and introduced the domains of language application including family, neighborhood, friendship, business, school, working environment, public affairs and religious affairs. In this research, using the Fesold viewpoint, the phenomenon of diglossia will be studied in two domains of informal (family, friendship and neighborhood) and formal domain (administrative, business and education) with the inclusion of the impact factors of age, gender, level of education and job on the application of the two languages of Persian and Turkish in Ardabil city.
3- Research The research is applied from the viewpoint of objective and survey as far as method is concerned. 400 research statistical sample has been selected out of the statistical population (Ardabil population) based on Morgan Table.
The most basic instrument used in this research was questionnaire. The questionnaire has been selected based on the questionnaire of research model of Parasher(1980) and of course with some amendments in it. In order to analyze the data and testing the hypotheses, also paired-samples T test and One-way ANOWA test have been employed in the research.
4- Conclusion and In summary, the results of hypotheses test showed the followings:• In Ardabil, in formal positions and in encountering with Persian speaking people, the Persian language and in the informal positions and in encountering with Turkish speaking people, the Turkish language is used accordingly.
• In comparing the age groups, the younger individuals use Persian more than other groups.
• In Ardabil city, children use Persian language more than other groups.
• In comparison of gender groups, girls use Persian language more than boys.
• In a comparison on rate of education, the literate people use Persian language more than illiterate people.
• In the comparison of job groups, people with a greater educational jobs use Persian more than other job groups.
The comparison of the application of Persian language and Turkish language in six social domains, family, friendship, neighborhood, business, educational and administrative affairs in Ardabil city showed the followings: - There is a significant difference between the application of Persian language and Turkish language in the respondents in each of the social domains.
- In the domain of the family (informal position), the application of Persian language (formal language) is less and vice versa, the application of the Turkish language (mother lounge) was more than other social domains.
- In the educational domain (formal position), the application of Persian language was more and vice versa, the application of Turkish language was less than other social domains. However, the dominant language in all other social domains of Turkish language was observed. The result is in agreement with the research findings of Fishman and Cooper(1971), Parasher (1980), Fereidouni (1998), Sanaei Moghadam(1998) and Imani (2004).
Comparing the averages of the application of two languages of Persian and Turkish by the examinees of Ardabil city in eight academic groups, it is concluded that Turkish is used by illiterate individuals greater and the least application of this language belongs to the level of primary school and associate in art/science degree programs. The greatest application of the Persian language belongs to the individuals with the education at the level of guidance schools. The results obtained in the part 4 and 5 ( impact of educational level on language application) is in agreement with the research findings of David (2003), Fereidouni (1998), Sanaei Moghadam (1999), Bashirnejad (2000) and Mashayekh(2004).
The comparison of the averages obtained from the rate of application of the two languages by the respondents in Ardabil city on two gender group showed that Turkish is used greater by the men. As for the Persian language, also the application of this language has been reported to be greater among women as compared with men. The results obtained (the impact of gender on language application) is in agreement with the results of the research by Bashir Nejad (2000) and Imani (2004).

1- Languages employ different strategies to represent motion as one of the basic human cognitive abilities. In Talmys¬ typological dichotomy (1991; 2000b) languages are of two types according to the way they represent path either in verb roots or in satellites, accordingly languages are either verb framed or satellite framed. Slobin (1991;1996 a,b.1997;2000) performed corpus based and cross-linguistic studies to examine the representation of motion events and their translation strategies in different languages, thus he revised the Talmy's typological dichotomy(1991;2000b) and showed the significance of corpus based methods in the study of motion events and their translation strategies from the source to target language. Verb framed and satellite framed languages show varieties in the representation of path in the process of translation (Slobin 1996a; in Ibarretxe - Antuñano 2003;153).
2- The present study is quantitative in nature. The research data is derived from the chapter six of Hobbit (1937) and its translation into Persian (Alizadeh 2004 ). It is worth mentioning that in the existing researches regarding the translation of motion events, the same chapter from the above mentioned novel are analyzed for two reasons, first for the considerable array of motion events represented in this text and second for the possibility of cross linguistic analyzes made possible. The theoretical frame work adopted in the present paper is based on Slobin(1991;1996a,b.1997;2000). Thus 175 sentences from the source and target texts were analyzed in which path features were represented.
3- Adopting a corpus based and cross linguistic approach to the study of motion events and their representations in languages not only shows the differences and similarities of the conceptualization of motion in languages but also unveils the translation strategies adopted during the process of translating motion concepts from source to target language. In this research we examined how the translation strategies of path proposed by Slobin (1991;1996 a,b.1997;2000) justify the representation of path in the translation from English to Persian. Accordingly we found that the P 1(the deletion of certain path elements ), P2(the insertion of a new path verb) and P3(statement of all the information of path ) are used both in English and Persian. The present paper introduced two new strategies here named P 4(the substitution of a path verb by another motion verb) and P 5(the substitution of a path verb by a manner verb ). The strategies P6 (translating a different type of path) and P 7(the extension of information regarding path) has been previously suggested in Ibarretxe- Antuñano 2003.
4- In this research the frequency of occurrence of the translation strategies of path mentioned in section3 are as follows: P1: 10/28% ; P2: 13/71% ; P3: 66/28% ; P4: 0/57% ; P5: 0/57% ; P6: 5/14% ; P7: 4/57%.
As it is obvious, the P3 strategy shows a considerable distribution compared with other strategies. Therefore the translation of all the information of path in motion events has had prevalence over other path translation strategies.

1- This research attempts to investigate the effects of forensically-relevant facial concealment on voiceless fricatives /f, s, ʃ/ in Farsi. There are various types of face-concealing garments that are commonly worn by people for the occupational, recreational, religious, and cultural purposes .These coverings may be typically used as disguises during the commission of crime by delinquents. Among these face coverings, one can refer to surgical masks, motorcycle helmets, and niqāb. Certainly, face coverings have an effect on the way the speech is produced. The way we produce speech is likely to be modified when a mask is covering our face. In such situations, the default motor activity of certain articulators such as lips make an effect on normal facial surface behaviours and natural jaw motions. Llamas (2008) claims that even more minor modification to the articulatory gestures during speech production may alter the resultant acoustic signal. When a fabric or other material is covering the mouth and nose, the propagation of the sound wave will be impeded, and the sound energy of certain spectral components of the signal will be absorbed. Nowadays, forensic speech scientists are encountered with such cases. The purpose of this study is firstly is to contribute to facewar research within forensic phonetics and secondly to prepare the experts to take that knowledge into account during their analysis when they are working on speech materials produced through facewear. Therefore, the present study centers on this question: Are the acoustic properties of facewear speech different from those of control speech. Thus, the current study explores the acoustic properties of voiceless fricatives /f, s, ʃ/ in Farsi both in control and facewear conditions.
2- Five female speakers were recorded in a professional acoustic laboratory at the University of Alzahra. The mean age of the five selected speakers was 29.They aged from 27 to 31. The speech material consists of 18 non words. Each non word was repeated twice. These were extracted from the /CɑC/ syllables. The total data set comprises 900 tokens: 5 speakers × 18 non words × 2 repetitions × 1 facewear conditions. Five types of facewear including unconcealed face, motorcycle helmet, rubber mask, surgical mask, and balaclavas without mouth hole, were tested in this study. Phonetic samples were analyzed using PRAAT version 5,2,34 and the statistical analysis of the data was performed by IBM SPSS version 21.0. To examine the effects of facewear on the acoustic speech signals, intensity and spectral parameters including friction intensity, center of gravity and spectral peak were measured.
3- The statistical analysis of the intensity of data revealed that facewear significantly affected the intensity of all voiceless fricatives. The main effect of facewear on intensity was significant for /f/ [F (4, 595) = 56.198, sig= 0.000], /s/ [F (4, 145) = 41.424, sig= 0.000], /ʃ/ [F (4, 145) = 40.481, sig= 0.000]. The intensity of the /f/ was smaller than 50 dB; while the intensity of /s/ and /ʃ/ were higher than 50 dB. The intensity of /s/ and /ʃ/ were more similar to each other than the intensity of /f/. For all the three voiceless fricatives, the effect of facewear on intensity was most noticeable in case of the helmet condition. Furthermore, surgical mask didn’t provoke large intensity changes relative to the control condition.
The statistical analysis revealed a significant main effect of facewearon on the spectral peak of all fricative, namely /f/ [F (4, 595) = 20.319, sig= 0.000], /s/ [F (4, 145) = 11.476, sig= 0.000], /ʃ/ [F (4, 145) = 3.524, sig= 0.009].The peak measures for /s/ and /ʃ/ were similar across facewear condition. In general, the peak measures for /s/ and /ʃ/ have been minimally affected through facewear condition. The peak measures for /s/ and /ʃ/ were acoustically less affected than those for /f/ because /f/ has diffuse spectral pattern.
The statistical analysis indicates that there was a significant main effect of facewear on the COG of /f/ [F (4, 595) = 50.245, sig= 0.000], /s/ [F (4, 145) = 20.683, sig= 0.000], /ʃ/ [F (4, 145) = 5.992, sig= 0.000].The results revealed that when /s/ is produced through facewear, it has the highest level of variation. This implies that sound energy is absorbed in higher frequency bands of the spectrum. This effect was most prominent in the rubber mask and helmet condition. Moreover, for /f/, the highest level of variation was in the helmet condition. The result indicates that the COG was only minimally affected when /ʃ/ was produced through facewear.
4- This survey attempts to explore the effects of forensically relevant face coverings on acoustic properties of voiceless fricatives /f, s, ʃ/ in Farsi. The voiceless fricatives, namely /s/, /ʃ/ and /f/ were chosen in this study because of the importance of fricative analysis in forensic phonetic caseworks and also for their energy distribution in higher frequency bands of the acoustic spectrum. To examine the effects of facewear on the acoustic speech signals, the intensity and spectral parameters including friction intensity, center of gravity, and spectral peak were measured. Phonetic samples were analyzed using PRAAT and the statistical analysis of the data was performed by IBM SPSS.
Findings indicate that facewear can considerably influence the intensity and spectral features of the voiceless fricatives /f, s, ʃ/. This was likely to be the result of some changes caused by face coverings which alter the acoustic-phonetic characteristics of the voiceless fricatives /f, s, ʃ/. The outcome reveals that intensity measure for the motorcycle helmet and COG measures for several face coverings (motorcycle helmet and rubber mask) show the highest values of changes. Furthermore, spectral peak of /f, s, ʃ/ compared to the intensity and COG has shown the least variation.