مجله کشاورزی بوم شناختی
سال ششم شماره 1 (1395)

With almost 870 million people worldwide chronically undernourished in 2012, the number of hungry people in the world remains unacceptably high. Reducing food insecurity and achieving sustainable food security are within reach, if such holistic actions as the quantification of food security at the household level are taken. Food security is defined as the permanent access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for all people, in order to have an active and healthy life. Improving food security is about more than just increasing the quantity of energy intake, it is also about improving the quality of the food The main objectives of the study were (i) to conduct a quantitative analysis of food security in Marvdasht county and (ii) to determine factors affecting sustainable food security in the study area.
This study was performed in Marvdasht county, a county of Fars province in southwestern Iran. Accordingly, 500 rural and urban households were randomly selected from the study area and a descriptive-survey method was applied. Demographic, social and economic information was collected through general questionnaires and household food security was assessed by an 18-item Household food security questionnaire as recommended by USDA. The relation between parental education, household income and household size with household food insecurity status were determined by the Spearman correlation test. The state of household food insecurity in urban and rural areas as well as the relationship between household food insecurity and parental job(s), were determined using a chi-square test.
According to the results obtained from USDA questionnaires, the most important experiences of food insecurity in households were a concern that food would run out and that they could not afford to eat balanced meals and relied on only a few kinds of low-cost foods. The results of this study showed that food insecurity in Marvdasht was 73.8% (Food insecure without hunger was 35%, Food insecure with moderate hunger was 23%, Food insecure with severe hunger was 15.8%). Food insecurity in rural households was greater than in urban households. One of the reasons is the lower economic ability of rural households compared with urban households for food supply. In addition, the higher rates of illiteracy and unemployment in rural areas can be other reasons. Also, food insecurity in villages located far from cities was not significantly different from those located close to cities, reflecting that there is no difference between an unpleasant diet for everybody and the distance from the city. Food insecurity reduced with increasing level of parental education and household income. Food insecurity in households with children was more than in childless households and, in households with an unemployed father and a housewife mother, was greater than in other households.
Overall, the findings showed that food insecurity was largely related to social, economic and cultural factors. Poverty eradication and changing unsustainable and promoting sustainable patterns of consumption and production are vital for access to food security for all. Hence, development of appropriate programs for improving the socio- economic situation of households could reduce food insecurity in the study area.

Understanding climatic parameters and their effect on crop plants is one of the most important factors for increasing performance and enhancing the product (Yazdanpanah, 2001).This is especially true in rain-fed agriculture where it is extremely important (Farajzadeh, 2007). The very important cereal grain barley is a strategic product that has the largest area under cultivation in Lorestan Province and plays an important role in the agricultural economy of the region. In Iran and worldwide, although many studies have been undertaken on the topic, most studies have been of climatic parameters used annually at various stages of growth and their effects have been studied less. The effect of climatic parameters on phenological stages has been considered, and the aim of this study was to compare the AHP and fuzzy models for zoning barley cultivation in the province and identify susceptible areas where barley is cultivated.
A study of temperature and precipitation on the phenological stages over a period of 15 years (1995-2009) and at six synoptic stations was applied. The ground parameters of slope, soil, altitude were used. In the preparation phase, the data analysis model applicable to the intended function of this layer was prepared. In this study, the model is the application of an integrated model for locating fertile lands for cultivation of barley using AHP and fuzzy models, The phenological stages of GDD (growing degree days) Obtained (Koanta,1974 . All climatic and phenological barley cultivation was determined according to the written sources and expert opinion and, according to the margin of compatibility and barley cultivation than any of the parameters and criteria, a separate map was prepared for each of the key factors. The standardization and classification was conducted and the layers were standardized about the value of was placed in the AHP formula. And overlay operation was conducted to estimate potential areas and the final map was produced and locations were identified.
The results showed that rainfall and temperature on the order of the barley has the greatest impact on barley. Overall rainfall and temperature during the flowering, seed germination and tillering stages of barley are the major factors limiting crop growth. Nowhere in the province is barley planted at the right temperature at the tillering stage: The average annual temperature and precipitation are not important but that matter is distributed at the corresponding stages. The results showed that the AHP model of the 55.18 percent overlap region has an optimal condition and is suitable in southern and southwestern parts of the Province, while 44.18 percent of it show medium and inappropriate conditions. In the Fuzzy model, 51.1 percent demonstrated an optimal condition and is suitable for areas that are prone regions in the model, and is drawn towards the center of the province, with 48.9 percent representing medium and poor areas. The AHP model is less flexible than the fuzzy model and serves as the basis of certain criteria. But its advantage is that it does not accept any risk and selected areas in this model certainly enjoy the best conditions for cultivation. This model is suitable for those areas where low-lying land is a disadvantage, because different criteria in this model lead to low flexibility. The bumps better fuzzy approach between the different spectra can be seen in layers, and this case demonstrates that the fuzzy model provides the possibility of deciding which areas are suitable for the needs of barley cultivation and should be chosen. As a result, potentiometric power was found to be more hierarchical than in the fuzzy model and operates more efficiently.
Thus, according to the results of the model showed the southern part of the province to be the best place to grow barley, and the fuzzy model showed the potential of finding suitable crops.

The accumulation of nitrate and nitrite in food and their effects on health is an issue that is still being studied and discussed (Jun et al., 2013), including the toxic effects of nitrate, nitrite formed from nitrate reduction by bacterial enzymes (Mensinga et al., 2003). Nitrite in the stomach can lead to N-nitrosamine compounds that have proven health hazards (Jeffrey et al., 2012). Nitrate accumulation is often dependent on the amount and type of nutrients in the soil, which is now due to the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and reduce nitrate to nitrite during storage threatens the health of human society (Zhou et al., 2000). Therefore, study of the effect of nitrogen from manure and chemical sources on yield and tuber quality is the main goal of this research in order to improve dry matter accumulation and quality
A field experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the Ardabil area during 2013. The experimental treatments included: a control treatment; application of 326 kg ha-1, 652 kg ha-1 and 978 kg ha-1 of chemical urea fertilizer; application of 21.1 ton ha-1, 42.3 ton ha-1 and 63.5 ton ha-1 of sheep manure; and application of 27.6 ton ha-1, 55.2 ton ha-1 and 82.9 ton ha-1 of cow manure. The fertilizing was done based on application of 150, 300 and 450 Kg of nitrogen per hectare, respectively. Nitrite and nitrate concentrations in tubers were determined using the diazo method with a spectrophotometer in accordance with standard methods of the Soil and Water Research Institute, at harvest time, 20 and 40 days after harvest
In general, the manures were remarkably superior to chemical fertilizer with respect to tuber yield. Application of 42.3 ton ha-1 and 63.5 ton ha-1 of sheep manure increased tuber yield to 42.37 ton ha-1 and 44.78 ton ha-1, respectively. In contrast, as the application amounts of the manures and chemical fertilizer increased, it led to a decrease in percentage of tuber dry matter. Treatment with 27.6 ton ha-1 of cow manure produced the highest percentage of dry matter in tuber. The effect of number of days after harvest was not significant on accumulation of nitrite, whereas it was significant on the accumulation of nitrate. In general, as the days after harvest increased, so did the accumulation of nitrite. Thus, nitrate concentrations measured in the last stage (40 days after harvest) was 1.63 mg kg-1 dry weight, about 5.8 and 1.2 fold higher compared with the first and second period, respectively. The highest application of chemical fertilizer produced higher accumulations of nitrate (879.90 mg kg-1) and nitrite (3.62 mg kg-1) than all the other treatments. In general, as the amounts of nitrogen increased in the fertilizer treatments, so did the accumulation of nitrate and nitrite; while the accumulations were lower with application of the manures than with application of chemical fertilizer. Accumulation of nitrate in the soil regardless of the type of nitrogen fertilizer had close relationship with the increased consumption. Most soil nitrate accumulation was observed with the application of sheep manure (63.5 ton ha-1); while the lowest levels of nitrate accumulation was observed in plots where cow manure (27.6 ton ha-1) and sheep manure (21.1 ton ha-1) were applied and had no significant difference with control plots
Increased application of both manures and chemical fertilizer led to an increase in soil nitrate, a decrease in the percentage of tuber dry matter and accumulation of nitrate and nitrite in potato tuber; the accumulations were lower with the application of the manures than with application of chemical fertilizer. The highest accumulation of nitrate was found to be in 40 days after harvest. Therefore, by reducing the use of nitrogen fertilizers, especially chemical fertilizers, and by optimizing storage conditions, the accumulation of nitrate and nitrite in potato tubers can be decreased.

Soil fertility refers to the ability of the soil to supply essential plant nutrients and soil water in adequate amounts and proportions for suitable plant growth. Organic fertilizers are derived from animal or plant matter such as cow manure. Organic fertilizers involve a slower release rate of nutrients than conventional watersoluble fertilizers and it decreases nutrient losses and enhances nutrient-use efficiency (Gliessman, 1998). Biological fertilizers contain living cells of efficient strains of microorganisms such as Azospirillum, Azotobacter Biofertilizers enhance microbial processes in the soil which augment the extent of availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants. Bio-fertilizers can be ranked in various groups based on their function (Manoly, 2008). Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) is an important medicinal plant from the family Asteraceae that is commonly used to serve various medicinal purposes. This species is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind (Baghalian et al., 2008).
In order to study the growth characteristics, flower yield and essential oil of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) as a medicinal plant affected by different fertilizer treatments, an experiment was conducted at the Agricultural Research Station College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the 2009-2010 growing season. An experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with four replications. Treatments were chemical fertilizer (100 kg.ha-1 urea, 60 kg.ha-1 K (K2O) and 100 kg.ha-1 P (P2O5), mycorrhiza, Nitroxin and Nitroxin mycorrhiza. K and P fertilizers added to the soil after land preparation. N was applied to the soil at three stages such as after planting time, one month after seedling emergence and before flowering stage. At planting time, 150 g soil with mycorrhiza fungi (Glomus intraradices) per plant was used under seed and seeds were inoculated with Nitroxin before planting time. Studied traits were height, flower number, flower diameter, dry weight of flower, fresh weight of flower and essential oil percentage and essential oil yield at six cuttings and total fresh and dry weights of flower and essential oil yield of chamomile. For statistical analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and least significant difference test (LSD) at a 5% probability level were performed using SAS version 9.1.
The results showed that the effect of plant height stem, number, diameter, dry yield and fresh yield of flower, essential oil yield at the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th cuttings and total flower number, total fresh yield and total dry yield of flower and essential oil yield of chamomile. The maximum flower number at different cuttings was observed in mycorrhiza Nitroxin. The maximum total flower number was recorded in mycorrhiza Nitroxin with 8556.67 flowers.m-2; it was higher than chemical fertilizer, mycorrhiza and Nitroxin up to 36, 107 and 18%, respectively. The highest essential oil yield was recorded in mycorrhiza Nitroxin with 4.4 g.m-2.
The results showed that growth and yield of flower and essential oil of chamomile were significantly affected by fertilizer treatments. So, it seems that the integrated application of mycorrhiza Nitroxin could be considered for growth and yield enhancement of this valuable medicinal plant based on sustainable agriculture.

Drought is one of the most limiting factors on plant production and both the grain yield and yield components of medicinal plants are influenced by it. Today, factors stated as being capable of improving stress resistance are included in the research requirements and organic methods are given the priority. In order to achieve these aims, the effects of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs) and humic acid on the yield and yield components of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) under drought stress conditions were evaluated.
An experiment was carried out during 2013 in the Northeast of Qom region, as a split factorial based on complete randomized blocks design in 3 replications. Irrigation interval on 3 levels (irrigation after 40, 70 and 100 mm evaporated water from a class A evaporation pan) as the main factor, humic acid at 2 levels (non-application and application) and PGPR using methods on 4 levels (non-application and application by seed inoculation, irrigation water and seed inoculation irrigation water) as factorial were considered as subfactors. Humic acid and PGPR applications in irrigation water were undertaken twice at the 4- and 12-leaf formation stages. The humic acid consumption volume was 3 liters per hectare for each irrigation treatment. The PGPR sources applied were Azotobacter (Azotobacter crococcum) and Azospirillum (Azospirillum brasilense).
The results demonstrated that drought stress had a significant decreasing effect on all experimented traits; however, PGPR and humic acid had a positive effect on evaluated characteristics in both stress and non-stress conditions (irrigation after 40 mm). According to the findings, with the exception PGPR × humic acid, all double and triple interaction effects were significant on seed and biological yield of basil. In this case, the highest seed yield (2336.67 kg ha-1) and biological yield (6867.01 kg ha-1) were observed in the 40 mm irrigation, humic acid and PGPR (seed inoculation irrigation water) treatment. The triple interaction effect of experimented factors was meaningful on 1000 seed weight. In this case, the highest amounts of the aforementioned traits (2.09 g) belonged to the integrated use of PGPR sources and humic acid in the optimal irrigation method (irrigation at 40 mm evaporation) and resulted in a 26.31 percent increase compared to the control treatment. Based on the research findings, drought stress improved the shoot essential oil content of basil; however, application of anti-stress agents by providing most of the plant requirements under both normal irrigation and water deficit stress conditions eventually made and stored higher essence content.
The drought stress created by increasing irrigation intervals, reduced significantly all yield and yield components of basil. Overall, the PGPR and humic acid application decreased adverse effects of water deficit stress, although the role of PGPR was greater than that of humic acid. The effect of experimental factors on the shoot essential oil percentage was in contrast and, under these circumstances, the role of drought stress in the consequential changes in essence content was greater than the total impact of the stimulating factors, namely PGPR and humic acid.

In the modernization of crop production, most methods used by growers to achieve better yields have largely been explored. Most of these methods involve increasing the efficiency of the utilization of natural resources. A rise in radiation use efficiency is one of the major criteria for obtaining a yield advantage. Plant dry matter accumulation has a linear relationship with accumulative Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR). Intercropping could be a strategy for increasing light absorption in agronomic systems and may improve radiation use efficiency (RUE): The additional solar energy used by the intercrop canopy leads to improved crop production and, thus, greater economic yield. Over the past three decades, there has been much study on the uses of radiation in intercropping and alley cropping systems for a wide range of crop combinations (Zhang et al., 2008; Sinclair and Muchow, 1999). However, the association of sesame and chickpea had not been analysed until now.
This study was conducted in order to evaluate radiation absorption and use efficiency in replacement series intercropping of chickpea and sesame. The treatments were arranged in split plots based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The treatments consisted of two planting methods, namely row planting and mixed planting (as main plot) and five planting ratios including chickpea monoculture, sesame monoculture, 10% chickpea흍% sesame, 20% chickpea흍% sesame, 30% chickpea흍% sesame as sub plot.
Results showed that sesame RUE was higher than chickpea RUE in all the treatments. The amount of sesame RUE varied from 1.49 to 1.76 g MJ-1 PAR and from 1 to 1.27 g MJ-1 PAR in row planting and mixed planting, respectively. The amount of chickpea RUE, also varied from 1.02 to 1.1 g MJ-1 PAR and from 0.71 to 0.94 g MJ-1 PAR in row planting and mixed planting, respectively. The results also showed that sesame RUE in intercropping treatments was higher than in monocropping treatments, but chickpea RUE in intercropping treatments was higher than in simply monocropping in row planting. In general, the amount of RUE of both crops in row planting was higher than in mixed planting, either in intercropping or monocropping treatments. Based on these results the best recommendable treatment for intercropping is 100% sesame% chickpea based on row planting. The chickpea RUE for treatment of 100% sesame% chickpea based on row planting was the highest level (1.1 g MJ-1) among the other treatments and the sesame RUE of this treatment was higher than the sesame monocrop RUE (1.7 g MJ-1 vs. 1.49 g MJ-1 in monocrop). The main findings in this study were as follows: Firstly, the intercrop intercepted more PAR than sesame and chickpea alone. Secondly, sesame/chickpea intercropping utilized radiant energy more efficiency than the monocrop, and sesame alone had greater RUE than chickpea alone. The higher ratio of diffuse to direct radiation surrounding the intercrop peanut would help to improve its e value (Sinclair et al., 1999). The shading effect offered by the taller plant might be partially offset by its higher photosynthetic rates per unit PAR at low intensity (Sinclair et al., 1989, Tsubo et al., 2001).
The results showed that chickpea plants can tolerate the shade produced by sesame plants when grown as a row intercrop but not under mixed intercrop. The higher yields obtained in intercropping systems are probably due to greater radiation-use efficiencies. Chickpea RUE decreased under mixed cropping, for the reason that raised sesame produced shading on chickpea.

There is a very close relationship among the various active elements within rangelands, which affect their sustainability and productivity. The chemical characteristics of the soil are among the most important factors in fertility and, consequently, in the density and type of plant cover of rangelands. Livestock grazing impacts on some qualitative soil properties, such as its physical and chemical and biological characteristics and including more reactive parameters such as biological activity, organic matter, bulk density, concentration of nutrients, etc. These have been reported for different time periods in rangeland ecosystems. The objective of this research was to investigate changes in chemical characteristics (EC, pH, available form of phosphorus and potassium, calcium carbonate, moisture content, etc.) and plant cover in three areas under treatments of heavy grazing (critical area), normal grazing (key area) and excluded from grazing (reference area).
This study was conducted in Makhmalkoh region located in north of Khormabad City and using soil samples from 0-15 and 15-30 cm depth from the three selected areas (reference, key and critical) with different grazing intensities. Soil samples were collected five times over 2 years and at four-month intervals from five one-hectare paddocks in each area. Soil EC, pH in saturated extract and OM, total nitrogen and available P and K were all determined using standard methods and the changes over time were compared. Plant cover density in each area was investigated using the plate method, and at three times, by determining the percentage of plant crown covers for each growth form and the percentage of bare soil and litter in each plate. The experiment was conducted based on a factorial completely randomized design.
The results showed that the effects of area (grazing intensity) and time of sampling (seasonal variation) were significant for total N, OM, and available P and K P Differences in grazing intensity affect the percentage of plant cover and plant species in a rangeland. The highest plant cover was observed in the key area and the least in the critical area. Inside the key area, shrubs were not observed. Also, a decrease in the plant cover percentage of grasses and an increase in shrubs were observed with an increase in grazing pressure. Decrease in soil OM and moisture content along with concentration of available P and K in soils of the studied area were observed due to grazing, which reduced soil fertility. Changes were more obvious for the 0-15 cm soil depth due to addition of animal manure, plant residue on the surface soil and more roots. A reduction of more than 10 percent in plant cover and an organic matter reduction due to intensive grazing can cause severe erosion and growth of unfavorable plants, which requires suitable management practices of livestock grazing and plant cover.

In recent decades, plant yield is said to have been affected by three major factors: genetics, management and climate change (Ciampitti and Vyn, 2012). However, climate change has been reported as the most effective factor on the yield of wheat, rice and maize crops (Li et al., 2010). Both modeling and empirical studies have indicated that maize yield is negatively affected by climate change at the global scale (Lobell et al., 2011). Among climatic factors, temperature plays a significant role on crop growth (Wallach et al., 2006) and each species has a specific temperature range represented by a minimum, maximum, and optimum (Hatfield and Prueger, 2015). This study was performed to investigate the effect of these factors on grain yield of irrigated maize in two provinces of Iran, Khuzestan and Fars, which include the largest area of maize cultivation.
The present experiment was conducted in 2014 and by study of eight locations in Khuzestan and Fars Provinces. The long-term data of irrigated maize yield in the studied cities were collected from the Ministry of Agriculture and the long-term weather data including minimum temperature, maximum temperature and average temperature were collected from the Iranian Meteorological Organization. Total weather data were controlled by the Tamet program and outliers were deleted. Then, the appropriate period for investigating weather data was selected based on maize growth period in each city. Also, in order to eliminate the effects of genetic improvement and management, the double exponential smoothing method was employed. To calculate weather parameter changes, trend and the relationship between maize yield and weather parameters were used as a simple linear regression. Finally, drawing graphs and Fig.ures was performed using Microsoft Excel 2003 and SigmaPlot v.11.
The results of present study showed that the minimum, maximum and average temperatures increased in most of the cities studied. Also, it can be stated that a rise in the average temperature has been more greatly affected by the minimum temperature than the maximum temperature. Generally, in all cities of Fars province the temperature throughout the maize growing season was in the optimal range for maize and higher yields in these cities could be due to a more favorable temperature. The results showed that the lowest median average temperature during growth period belonged to Fasa (22.87 ° C) and Shiraz (25.42 ° C). Similarly, the highest median yield was also belonged to Fasa and Shiraz with 8539.11 and 7934.42 kg ha-1, respectively. In contrast, Shushtar and Ahvaz showed the highest median average temperature and had the lowest yield among the studied cities. In general, it seems that higher grain yield in the locations studied in Fars province could be because of a lower temperature in the maize growing season compared with Khuzestan province. Results of the double exponential smoothing method and regression analysis indicated that the regression coefficients between smoothed maize yield and maximum, minimum and average temperature were not significant in any cities except in Marvdasht where there was a negative relationship between rising temperature and maize yield.
Despite the non-significant statistical relationship between maize yield and weather parameters in the studied locations, it is important to consider national food security which will probably be affected by rising temperatures in the future. This negative effect may be overcome by developing and using suitable new methods for adaptation and mitigation in face of climate change.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is the most important forage legume worldwide and, due to its slow growth in the initial vegetation stages, may become highly infested with weeds (Wilson and Burgener, 2009). Thus, methods of sowing and alfalfa development have a significant effect on the crop establishment (Booth et al. 2003). Reliable methods for alfalfa establishment are important for productive and long-lived stands. Sowing a companion crop with alfalfa can help prevent erosion, reduce weed pressure and provide a forage crop before the alfalfa is ready for cutting (Tan and Serin, 2004a). A companion crop is a fast growing annual crop that grows quickly enough to overcome weeds and provides a cash return in the establishment year. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of different alfalfa and companion crop densities on alfalfa forage yield and weed control in establishment year.
In order to study the effect of a barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) companion crop on alfalfa weed density and biomass, a field experiment was conducted in 2013-2014 in the research fields of the Plant Protection Research Institute, Karaj. The experiment was established as randomized complete block design with a factorial arrangement of treatments and 4 replications. Two factors including, seeding rates of alfalfa at two levels (30 and 45 kg/ha) and seeding rates of barley at 6 levels (0, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 kg /ha) were considered. Traits measured in this experiment included hay yield, weed density and biomass in the first cut and hay yield and weed biomass (if any) in second, third and fourth cuts.
Results showed that increases in alfalfa seeding rates from 30 to 45 kg/ha, significantly increased annual hay yield (8.6%). Increases of barley companion crop seeding rates also caused a significant increase in annual hay yield in comparison with pure alfalfa, as greatest hay yield (80.57) was observed in 60 kg seeding rates. Weed density and biomass of first cut was influenced by additive intercropping treatments of alfalfa and barley. Use of barley as companion crop, in addition to reducing weed density and biomass, suppressed alfalfa plant growth and reduced the percentage of alfalfa in the first cut hay yield. Residual effects of barley were seen in the subsequent cut, so that different densities of barley reduced weed biomass compared to the control in the second cut. The results of this study showed that use of barley as companion crop can play significant role in reducing dependence on herbicides and increase forage quality. Based on results from the first year, the seeding rates of 45 and 60 kg ha-1for mixed cropping of alfalfa and barley respectively, in addition to increases forage production, can control weeds effectively.
The results of this study indicate that barley reduced both weed competition and alfalfa growth, but increased total hay yields in the establishment year. The residual effects of the companion crop on weed suppression continued in the second cut. In most cases, the 45 kg/ha alfalfa seeding rate was superior. Sowing the barley at a higher seeding rate of more than 60 kg/ha appeared to depress initial growth of alfalfa in the seeding year, especially at the first harvest. The results showed that alfalfa can be successfully established with a companion crop. Based on the first year results and in order to achieve the best result, it is suggested that alfalfa and the barley companion crop be sown at the 45 and 60 seeding rate respectively.

Valuation and quantifying of different services for agro-ecosystems is one of the main effective factors for increased attention to these services and for adopting suitable approaches to sustainability of these services. In fact, economic valuation reflects the value of some ecosystem functions, goods and services, and helps social and economic planners and managers to plan the conservation and sustainable exploitation of resources. A solution for achieving sustainability on farms is the use of the natural services in agricultural lands through the replacement of off-farm inputs such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers.
In the study, the value of agro-ecosystem services was evaluated under two different management systems, including conventional and organic for wheat and potato crops in Fariman city. The agroecosystem services studied included primary and secondary production as market services and pest control, soil production, carbon sequestration, supply of nutrients from the soil and soil fertility as non-market services. The main products included the two products (tubers and seeds for cultivation and harvest-to-send to the market in the following year), which farmers purchase and sell. The economic value of secondary production was the price of wheat and potato residual on the farm and this residual was considered as a secondary production. Other ecosystem services included non-market values. The market and non-market value of the ecosystem services in conventional and organic farms were calculated. These values were evaluated according to three different scenarios on the total acreage of wheat (10000 hectares) and potato (800 hectares) in the Fariman region. In this scenario it was assumed that 10, 25 and 50 percent of the total area of conventional wheat and potato farms would be replaces by an organic system. Finally, the differences between the scenarios were compared with the condition where the total area was under the conventional management.
The results showed the conventional potato system had a higher market value than the organic system, but the value of non-market services in the conventional was less than in the organic. Market and non-market values for wheat organic farms was higher than conventional farms, so that the total value of ecosystem services in organic farms was equal to 9.75 million RS ha-1 year-1 and this value for conventional systems gained about 7.84 million RS ha-1 year-1. The results of the evaluated scenarios illustrated that the value of non-market services increased with an increasing cultivated area of potato and wheat in the Fariman region so that, when 50% from total cultivated area of potato and wheat will be managed as organic, the total non-market value will be increased by 861 million RS year-1 and 6998 million RS year-1, respectively. Other studies also showed that ecosystem services, especially non-market services, have more value in organic agriculture than in conventional and intensive agriculture (Takatsuka et al., 2005). Sandhu et al. (2008) showed that the value of ecosystem services were 4600 and 3600 US $ per hectare per year in organic and conventional systems, respectively. Grandy and Robertson (2007) indicated that the total value of ecosystem services in organic agriculture is more than in conventional agriculture.
This study showed that organic management systems of potato and wheat farms provide more ecosystem services, especially non-market services, in comparison with conventional systems. However, in some cases, loss of yield and market value reduced the total value of organic agricultural services, but it should be noted that the movement towards organic and sustainable farming provides both -market services as well as market services such as environmental protection and healthy food production.

Water is one of the main inputs for any agricultural system and crop production is highly correlated with the plant water availability. Long-term outputs in agro-ecosystems are highly related to soil water content (Allen et al.¡ 1998) Under water deficit conditions plant nutrition management¡ specifically nitrogen which is one of the most important nutrients and a key factor in achieving optimum yield and quality of sunflower¡ is very important. Recently new organic sources such as Zeoponix¡ Vermicompost and Zeocopmost have been used in some organic farms. In sustainable agricultural systems nitrogen should be a flow in a closed system (Basso et al.¡ 2005). Our objective was therefore to study the effect of different soil fertility systems on yield and yield components of sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) under different irrigation regimes.
The experiment was conducted at the Faculty of Agriculture of Tarbiat Modares University Treatments were arranged as spilt plots based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Irrigation regimes included: irrigation after consuming 30% (I1)¡ irrigation after consuming 50% (I2) and irrigation after consuming 70% (I3) of available soil moisture; these were randomly arranged as the main plots and subplots were different fertilizer types. These included: providing 100% N of plant requirement from urea chemical fertilizer (F1)¡ from urea chemical fertilizer cattle manure (F2)¡ zeocompost (F3)¡ vermicompost (F4)¡ zeoponix (F5)¡ zeocompost vermicompost (F6) zeocompost zeoponix (F7) and vermicompost zeoponix (F8). Time-domain reflectometry (TDR) probes with tube access (TRIME-FM¡ England) were used to measure soil water content.
The results showed that different irrigation regimes and fertilizer treatments and their interactions significantly affected grain yield¡ oil percentage and yield¡ protein percentage¡ 1000 grain weight¡ head diameter¡ grain number per head¡ and final dry matter. In the complete irrigation treatment¡ the highest grain yield was obtained from an integrated organic nutrition system with an average grain yield of 2604¡ 2440 and 2627 kg ha-1¡ respectively¡ from F6¡ F7 and F8. Under water deficit stress regimes irrigation after consuming 50 and 70 percent of available soil moisture)¡ the highest grain yield was obtained from the high zeolite content organic nutrition systems (F3¡ F5 and F7). In complete irrigation treatment¡ the highest grain oil content was gained from vermicompost content organic nutrition systems (49.8%¡ 47.6% and 47.4%) while¡ under moderate and severe water deficit stress regimes¡ the highest grain content was obtained from high zeolite content organic nutrition systems. Zeolite increases the plant quantitative and qualitative yield by providing a higher level of nutrients and moisture in oil. Based on the findings of this research¡ in a full irrigation regime the best source of nitrogen supply in sunflower cultivation was an integrated organic nutrition system. Also¡ under water deficit conditions zeolite amended organic composts provided better moisture levels for plant and increased yield and seed oil content¡ in addition to supply more nitrogen amounts.
This study has demonstrated that the combined application of organic fertilizers like Vermicompost¡ Zeoponix and Zeocompost can reduce the use of chemical fertilizers in agro-ecosystems in addition to producing healthy products with an acceptable performance.

Increasing crop diversity through intercropping can be effective to improve the functions and ecosystem services. One of the main functions of multiple cropping systems is weed control and increasing yield crop (Bulson et al.¡ 1997). To study the effects of intercropping on yields of corn¡ soybean and marshmallow¡ land equivalent ratio (LER) and the control potential of weeds¡ experimental research was carried out at the farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in the growing season of 2013-2014.
Experimental research was carried out as strip split plot based on randomized complete block design at the farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in the growing season of 2013-2014. Experimental treatments (14 treatments) included weed factor at 2 levels and also different planting patterns of intercropping of corn¡ soybean and marshmallow at 7 levels with 3 replicates. The studied characteristics included yield¡ land equivalent ratio (LER)¡ density and dry matter of weeds.
The highest density of weeds between the different patterns of intercropping was obtained from sole cropping of soybean (46.7 plants per m2) and the lowest density of weeds was obtained from intercropping of corn¡ soybean and marshmallow (37.6 plants per m2). The greatest reduction percentage of corn yield in the presence of weeds was achieved from sole cropping of corn (22.7%) and also the least reduction percentage of corn yield in the presence of weeds was achieved from intercropping of corn¡ soybean and marshmallow (15.6%). The greatest and the least reduction percentages of soybean yield in the presence of weeds were obtained from sole cropping of soybean (32.3%) and intercropping of corn¡ soybean and marshmallow (19.1%)¡ respectively. Also¡ the greatest and the least reduction percentages of marshmallow yield in the presence of weeds were obtained from sole cropping of marshmallow (36.4%) and intercropping of corn¡ soybean and marshmallow (23.6%)¡ respectively. The results showed that different patterns of intercropping had higher yield compared to sole cropping. In weed control conditions¡ the highest amount of land equivalent ratio was obtained from intercropping maize and soybean (1.083). In the presence of weeds¡ the greatest and the least land equivalent ratios were achieved from intercropping of corn¡ soybean and marshmallow (1.246) and the intercropping of soybean and marshmallow (1.093)¡ respectively. Investigation of the land equivalent ratio showed that intercropping of maize¡ soybean and marshmallow was superior to sole cropping of them. Higher amounts of LER in the presence of weeds compared to the absence of weeds shows the beneficial effects of intercropping in weeds control and yield enhancement compared to sole cropping.
The results showed that the land equivalent ratio was higher than one in all different patterns of intercropping¡ Indicating the superiority of intercropping compared to the sole cropping of corn¡ soybean and marshmallow in terms of economic yield. In total¡ the results showed that intercropping of these species can produce higher yield due to better control of weeds.

Sesame is a valuable oil seed crop that has lower yield and input response in comparison to other crops. Because of the less Improved genetic characteristics of sesame in comparison with dominant crops¡ and the lack of development in management methods and mechanization in sesame have resulted in neglecting cultivation of this plant (Rezvani Moghaddam et al¡ 2005; Jahan et al.¡ 2012). Several studies have presented useful effects of biological fertilizers on crop yield that¡ in addition to providing necessary nutrients for plants¡ they have lower cost and unlike chemical fertilizers do not have adverse effects on the environment. These fertilizers could therefore be helpful in the cultivation of crops such as sesame and restoring them to agricultural systems (Jahan and Nassiri Mahallati¡ 2012). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of biological and chemical fertilizers supplying nitrogen¡ phosphorus and sulfur for the production of sesame.
An experiment was conducted based on a RCBD with three replications at the agricultural research field of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the 2012-2013 growing season. Ten treatments that included Nitroxin (1)¡ Biophosphor (2)¡ Biosulfur (3)¡ a double mixture of 1 and 2 (4)¡ a triple mixture of 1 and 2 and 3 (5) and chemical fertilizers of Urea (6)¡ triple super phosphate (7)¡ double mixture of 6 and 7 (8)¡ triple mixture of 6 and 7 and elemental sulfur (9) and a control (10) were applied. For all treatments¡ 20 ton ha-1 of manure was applied before planting.
The results showed that application of biological and chemical fertilizers was significant on the number of capsules per plant¡ biological yield¡ grain yield and oil yield. The number of capsules per plant was the most important component in sesame yield (r=0.87)¡ but the number of seeds per capsule¡ 1000-seed weight and harvest index were not affected by treatments. Also¡ seed oil content was not affected by the treatments¡ so the highest oil yields were gained in treatments which had produced more seeds. In treatment no.9 (multiple mixture of chemical ferilizers of urea-triple super phosphate-elemental sulfur) the biological and grain yield increased by 51.1 and 54.44 percent¡ respectively¡ in comparison to the control. Generally¡ the treatment of a multiple mixture of chemical fertilizers of urea-triple superphosphate-elemental sulfur had the highest number of capsules per plant (107 capsules)¡ biological yield (20¡908 kg ha-1)¡ grain yield (3¡757.8 kg ha-1) and oil yield (1¡674.6 kg ha-1)¡ which had no significant difference with the treatment of multiple mixture of biological fertilizer of Nitroxin-Biophosphor-Biosulfur (treatment no.5). In this experiment¡ although biological fertilizers did not affect the sesame seed oil percentage (a qualitative feature) because of such reasons as plant characteristics or ineffectiveness of effective microorganisms of biological fertilizers¡ they increased the quality of the product (oil yield) in parallel with yield.
The results showed that¡ in general¡ the use of biological fertilizers can increase both growth and yield characteristics of sesame seeds similar to chemical fertilizers. The highest yield of sesame was gained in mixed treatments of biological and chemical fertilizers. The application of these fertilizers increased leaf area index and improved the ability of plants to grow better and produce more biomass¡ thereby achieving a higher yield. In general¡ it can be said that for successful and economic production of sesame¡ in addition to chemical fertilizers bio-fertilizers can also be used. In addition¡ this offers long-term benefits such as reducing the input costs¡ greater sustainability of production and agricultural production and environmental health.

In developing countries land degradation and¡ as a consequence¡ soil quantity and quality reduction are the main challenges in sustainable development. Recently¡ the role of soil microorganisms in improving the soil properties of land prone to erosion and degradation has been approved. However¡ improving the performance of soil microorganisms through their direct inoculation can be a new strategy in soil and water conservation. Therefore¡ the identification and bulk scale proliferation and widespread use of bacteria and cyanobacteria are necessary for reducing soil loss and runoff. Accordingly¡ this study was planned to isolate¡ identify and proliferate the most appropriate indigenous bacteria and cyanobacteria for soil and water conservation.
In order to isolate and identify the bacteria and cyanobacteria¡ soil sampling was carried out from erosion-prone region of the vicinity of Marzanabad-Kandeloos. According to the TSA and Nutrient Agar (Lecomte et al.¡ 2011) and Bold Basal and CHU10 (Andersen¡ 2005) experimental protocols¡ general media were used for the isolation and identification of bacteria and cyanobacteria¡ respectively. The isolated bacteria and cyanobacteria were then identified by microscopic examination along with their distinguishing morphological characteristics (Bergey and Breed¡ 1957). The most effective bacteria and cyanobacteria were consequently selected for the purpose of soil loss and runoff reduction. The selected soil microorganisms were purified by selective media (Atlas¡ 2010; Schrey et al.¡ 2012) and then proliferated in high bulk and number.
The results showed the existence of different bacteria viz. Pseudomonas sp.¡ Arthrobacter sp.¡ Azotobacter sp.¡ Diplococcus sp.¡ Streptococcus sp. and Bacillus sp.¡ and cyanobacteria viz. Nostoc sp.¡ Oscillatoria sp.¡ Lyngbya sp.¡ Phormidium sp.¡ Aphanothece sp.¡ Diatoms and Xanthophyta in the Azotobacter sp. as free-living and nitrogen-fixing bacteria and the Bacillus subtilis strain with a high polysaccharides secreting capability and Nostoc sp. and Oscillatoria sp. as nitrogen-fixing and polysaccharides secreting cyanobacteria were selected as the genus with high functionality in soil and water conservation; this was based on some criteria such as survival power¡ proliferation and activity under inappropriate conditions¡ secretion of adhesive polysaccharides power¡ networking growth¡ the creation of micro and macro structures and being non-pathogenic for humans and other organisms. Since¡ after the proliferation process¡ the population of bacteria and cyanobacteria in one gram of original soil increased from 6.4×104 and 1.3×104 to 6.25×1014 and 2×1015 per gram¡ inoculation and increase of bacteria in soil could enhance the microbial activity of the soil crust. In addition¡ the secreted polysaccharides of bacteria could connect the soil particles together and increase soil porosity. The maintained processes could improve soil properties¡ and decrease soil and water loss. Furthermore¡ the feasibility of bacteria and cyanobacteria inoculation into widespread area was proven as a perdurable and biological stabilizer. According to economic evaluation¡ the cost of producing and inoculating bacteria and cyanobacteria could be up to 2 to 24 times lower than natural and artificial stabilizers.
The results of the present study proved the feasibility of identification and proliferation of useful soil microorganisms in soil and water conservation from an erosion-prone region. Therefore¡ combined widespread use of selected and proliferated bacteria and cyanobacteria by aircraft could increase soil particle adherence¡ soil aggregate stability¡ soil porosity and permeability and¡ consequently¡ conserve soil and water resourses.

Because Iran is in an arid and semi-arid area¡ lack of water is considered as a serious crisis in the country; so using agronomic techniques such as irrigation¡ use of low quality water resources (brackish and saline) and the use of dry-friendly herbs and halophytic herbs is of great importance in agricultural production. Deficit irrigation is an optimal solution for agricultural production whereby the removal of excess irrigation and reduction in water use at every turn has no negative effect on net profit but increases water use efficiency (Sohrabi et al.¡ 2006). Currently¡ an alternative crop resistant to drought compared with conventional forage plants has been kochia whose rapid deployment in the soil¡ in addition to creating a short lived protective cover¡ can be used as an alternative forage especially in areas that are confronted with lack of forage production (Jami Ahmadi et al.¡ 2004). Kochia is a drought resistant annual plant and can be a valuable source of forage in ecosystems under drought conditions. Its rapid growth of kochia and drought resistance shows that this plant has a high potential for designation as an important forage crop in arid and semi-arid areas (Jami Ahmadi and Kafi¡ 2007).
In order to investigate the effect of plant density¡ height of harvest and consumption of nitrogen fertilizer on yield of dry matter and some agronomic traits of Kochia¡ an experiment was conducted in a factorial arrangement based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in spring and summer of 2011 in a research field at Neishabour city. The treatments consisted of plant density at three levels (20¡ 30 and 40 plants in 1 m2)¡ height of harvest at two levels (10 and 20 cm from level of soil) and nitrogen fertilizer at two levels (consumption of 150 kg ha-1 Urea after the first cutting and non consumption nitrogen fertilizer).
The results indicated that the effect of plant density was not significant on the leaf dry weight and the ratio of the leaf dry weight to stem in the first and second cutting¡ while its effect on the yield¡ stem dry weight and the leaf area index in the first and second cuttings was significant; also¡ by increasing the plant density¡ these traits increased significantly. The effect of the height of harvest on studied traits¡ also the consumption of Urea after the first cutting on the yield of dry matter¡ stem dry weight and the leaf area index in the second cutting was not significant¡ but its effect on leaf dry weight and the ratio of the leaf dry weight to stem in the second cutting was significant.
Generally¡ it seems that the plant density of 30 plants per m2¡ the height of harvest of 20 cm from level of soil and the consumption nitrogen fertilizer after harvest of the first cutting are effective factors to obtain desirable yield and quality in produced forage of Kochia.