نشریه بوم شناسی کشاورزی
سال هشتم شماره 2 (تابستان 1395)

During the last decades interest in organic production of seed specially for medicinal plants take into consideration because of higher quality of organic products (Hermes, 2010). Seed germination is one of the principal stages in the plant life cycle and seeds with higher quality and vigour resulted in more pronounced seedlings growth and development. Therefore, investigation of agronomic practices specially nutrient management in the field is important because of its effective role in the promotion of plant growth, yield and consequently seeds with good quality criteria.
In order to investigate seed quantitative and qualitative criteria of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.), isabgol (Plantago ovate Forsk.) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) under application of organic fertilizers including cow manure, spent mushroom compost, municipal waste compost and control, an experiment was conducted in a complete randomized block design with three replications at Agricultural Research Station of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, during two growing season of 2010-2011 and 2011-2012. Consequently, their seed quality criteria were evaluated in a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications in Laboratory of Seed Technology at College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran. Criteria such as biological and seed yield, harvest index, 1000- seed weight, length, width and diameter of seed, seed germination percentage and rate, seed vigour index, length and weight of seedling were investigated.
Results indicated that organic fertilizers caused a significant increase in seed yield and biological yield in which spent mushroom compost had the highest effect on mentioned criteria compared to control in both years of experiment. Harvest index was not affected by fertilizers in isabgol and black cumin in both years while showing a significant effect in fennel. Application of spent mushroom composts in the first year of experiment and municipal waste compost in the second year of the experiment affected 1000- seed weight of isabgol and black cumin, respectively. Also, seed germination percentage and rate, seedling length and weight and seed vigour index were affected by organic fertilizers in three studied species, in which cow manure performed better and caused the highest amount of seed criteria compared to control. Based on the results, application of cow manure, spent mushroom compost and municipal waste compost resulted in an increase of 43.75, 26.62 and 10.3 % in seed vigour index in comparison with control, respectively. Non-application of organic fertilizers caused 23.5, 17.66 and 8.48% reduction of mean seedling length compared to using cow manure, spent mushroom compost and municipal waste compost, respectively. Also, seedling dry weight had a similar trend like seedling length. Interaction effect of species and organic inputs affected seed length significantly, in which, spent mushroom compost caused the highest amount of seed length in studied species. Fennel seeds by using spent mushroom compost showed the highest seed length (6.19 mm) among different studied species and organic inputs. It seems black cumin, isabgol and fennel under organic nutrition showed more pronounce growth and yield in which resulted in production of seeds with higher vigour and germination criteria. Probably adequate balance of nutrients in seeds caused better growth of seedlings and consequently increased their length and dry weight compared to non application of organic fertilizers.
In general, the results of this experiment revealed that application of organic fertilizers such as cow manure, spent mushroom compost, municipal waste compost promoted both yield and seed quality characteristics of three studied species, black cumin, isabgol and fennel, which seems a promising result in production of organic medicinal plants.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported by the fund provided by the vice chancellor for research and technology of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad for which the authorsare thankful.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is cultivated on alarge scale in arid and semiarid environments. Terminal drought and heat stress, among other abiotic and biotic stresses, are the major constraints of yield in most regions of chickpea production. The study of the effects of climate change could help to develop adaptation strategies to promote and stabilize crop yield. This research was aimed to assess adoption strategies in rainfed chickpea in response to Zanjan province’s climate change using a crop simulation model along with providing simulated yield maps using geographical information system (GIS).
To study the effects of climate change and simulation the adaptation strategies, the model of Soltani and Sinclair (Soltani & Sinclair, 2011) was used. This model simulates phenological development, leaf development and senescence, mass partitioning, plant nitrogen balance, yield formation and soil water balance. For each location, a baseline period of daily weather data was available (Table 1). Investigated scenarios were historical climate (control) and future climate scenarios that included both direct effects of doubling CO2 (350 to 700 ppm) and its indirect effects (10% reduced rainfall, 4ºC increase in temperature). The crop model was performed for the different years of baseline period for current and future climate under typical management and cultivar and also under three adaptation strategies in the future climate including Management adaptation (M), Genetic adaptation (G) and a combination of both Management and Genetic adaptation (M & G) as described below (Table 2): Management – In various studies changing the planting dates as the simplest and least-cost adaptation strategy has been emphasized (Luo et al., 2009); hence a shift in planting dates i.e. sowing 15 days in advance was explored in this study to reduce the risk of the late season drought.
Genetics – Changes in genotype have been suggested to be the most promising adaptation option in the world. Earlier maturity cultivars may be needed to match future drier conditions. Thus alternative genotype was a cultivar with 20% lesser of the required biological day from emergence to flowering.
M & G – The third adaptation practice was an attempt to combine both earliness and early sowing date (15 days).
A randomized complete-block design was used for data analysis in which climate condition with considered treatment and years was considered as blocks. When it was necessary, mean comparison was done using a Least Significant Difference (LSD) procedure at 5% level.
The results showed that in future climatic change, mean yield for Zanjan province will reach to 1036 kg.ha-1 with 38.4% increasing which was statistically different compared to current situation (760 kg.ha-1). The possibilities for gathering more benefits of grain yield were tested by changing traditional management and genetics of the locations in the future climate which involved three management options as adaptation strategies (Earlier Sowing, Earlier maturity Cultivars and combination of these two options). Applying earlier sowing date in comparison with conventional sowing date, increased mean yield by 67.7% (1268 kg.ha-1). In addition, applied earlier maturity cultivar led to 1212 kg.ha-1 (63.9% increase in comparison with current cultivar). Results revealed that using earlier maturity cultivars in combination with earlier sowing date will increase mean yield up to 1452 kg.ha-1 (94.5% increase),whichwasthe consequence of a shift in growing season to a wetter part of the year and reduced the risk of late season drought stress. Furthermore, breeding for earliness by reducing the vegetative period would save more water to be used for grain filling. Under these circumstances, according to decreased environmental risks, yield sustainability will increase up to 28.4%.
The Results of this study can also be extended to water-limited regions of chickpea producing with similar climatic and edaphic conditions. New varieties should be released with shorter growth periods than current ones and their sowing dates must be advanced if possible. Other management practices such as conservation tillage or keeping residue on the soil surface in order to save and increase soil water content were not included in this study which is suggested to evaluate the effects of these factors on the yield of crops in the future climate change studies.

Growth analysis has been widely used in breeding programs to identify the important plant developmental phases and components related to higher yield under a particular set of environmental conditions. Castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) is an important commercial crop. Castor oil based by products is used in manufacturing of several commercially important commodities like surfactants, coatings, greases, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, polyesters, polymers, etc. Interference (Interactive effects among species on inter-species populations) is one of the main issues on the eco-physiology of plant populations where weeds impose negative effects by approaching the plant to compete in light, water and nutrient elements availability and results in reduced growth and yield (Shinggu et al. , 2011). Growth indices are useful for interpreting plant reactions to the crop and weed density. Various reasons have been attributed for the low productivity among the most important is weed competition (Radosevich, 1987). The aim of the present experiment was evaluating the interference effects of redroot pigweed on growth indices of castor bean in northwest of Iran.
This experiment was conducted in Urmia, Iran (Agricultural Research of West Azarbayjan, Saatlo Station (37°44´18״ N Latitude and 45° 10´ 53״ E Longitude, at 1338 m above sea level) ) in 2012. The soil of the experimental field was sandy - loam, with pH of 7. 2. Competitive pattern of experiment was in two-factor based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications arranged in four castor plant densities (3, 4, 5 and 6 plants. m-2) and four redroot pigweed densities (0, 5, 10 and 15 plants. m-2). Redroot pigweed and castor seeds were simultaneously directly planted on the 22th May in 2012. Redroot pigweed plants were weeded at the times related to the treatments level. Irrigation and intercultural operations were performed whenever necessary. Plots were 3m×5m with 60 cm between rows. Seven times during plant growth stage castor plants were harvested from each plot considering marginal effects. The plants were transferred to the laboratory for evaluating of dry matter. Excel (Microsoft Office, 2007) was used for drawing of diagrams.
The results showed that the highest dry matter (DM), leaf area index (LAI), crop growth rate (CGR) and relative growth rate (RGR) of castor were observed in pure stands of castor. Among pure stands, the highest and the lowest DM and CGR were achieved in castor densities of 5 and 3 plants. m-2, respectively. The highest (4. 06) and lowest (0. 90) of castor LAI were observed in 6 plants. m-2 of castor density and 3 plants. m-2 of castor with 15 plants. m-2of pigweed at 1046 GDDs, respectively. The Maximum (0. 317 g. m-2. g. d. d-1) and minimum (0. 114 g. m-2. g. d. d-1) of crop growth rate for castor plants were achieved at the same GDDs in 5 plants. m-2 of castor, and 3 plants. m-2 of castor with 15 plants. m-2 of pigweed, respectively. These parameters were decreased by increasing pigweed densities. Therefore, it can be concluded that DM and CGR are decreased, due to increasing pigweed density; these parameters are slightly affected by castor density. Measurement results of pigweed characteristics indicated reduction in LAI, DM, Weed Rate Growth (WRG) and RGR of pigweed in presence of castor bean. Increasing in castor density caused a greater reduction in the mentioned characteristics whereas in the highest density of pigweed (15 plants. m-2), increasing in castor density caused 44, 40 and 134 % decrease in LAI, DM, WRG, respectively.
The results of this study showed that increasing plant density to 6 plant. m-2 increased LAI, DM, CGR and RGR. Therefore, it (6 plants. m-2 of Castor bean density) can be recommended for reducing redroot pigweed damage in Castor bean field.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the project byVice President for Research and Technology, Urmia University, and West Azarbaijan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center, Iran.

Kermanshah province, Iran, comprises an area, of 24640 km2 and is located between 33°37′-35°17′N and 45°20′-48°1′E. The average annual precipitation is 450 mm. Most of the fields surveyed in this study lie between 542 and 1554 m a.s.l. Among the factors decreasing the wheat yields, weeds have an important role. The results of some researches show that the weeds flora depends on climatic conditions, temperature and amount of rainfall in spring and in summer. Environmental factor splay a key role in the weed cover. These differences affected by climatic conditions, latitude and longitude. Multivariate statistical methods that have been addressed in this study area powerful tool to study the relationship between environmental factors and ecological weed community composition (Hassannejad & Pourhaydar Ghafarbi, 2013; Lososova et al., 2004). Correlation and regression of data floristic and environmental factors were used in the CCA (Canonical Correspondence Analysis) technique (Legendre & Legendre, 1998).
A survey was conducted to study the effects of soil and climatic factors on distribution of weeds in 85 irrigated wheat fields in 11 counties based on its area under irrigated wheat. An Experiment was conducted in Kermanshah province during 2011-2012. After choosing the field to be surveyed, the surveyor followed a “w”-designated set pattern to enumerate the weeds in each type of field. The pattern and number of 0.25 m2 quadrats varied according to the size of the fields. The field surveys were made during the wheat tillering to stem elongation stages. Frequency, density and mean density index of species in each county were calculated. After weed species were collected in the fields, we arranged the samples into the first matrix where weed species are represented by columns and fields of different districts by rows. Also, in the second matrix, environmental factors are represented by columns and fields of different districts by rows. Data on weed communities and environmental factors of all districts were analyzed through with ordination methods like canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) and weed species distribution and environmental factors displayed in ordination diagrams. These ordination methods were done with mean density of 29 abundant weed species for CCA using CANOCO (Version 4.5). Ordination plots were produced for both sampling sites and weed species associated with environmental factors. For CCA, we used site elevation, humidity for 10 years period, daily raining for a 10 years period. Soil characteristic included calcium, phosphor, potassium, nitrogen, sodium, magnesium, pH were determined. Sand, clay and silt in soils were measured and elevation of each field was gained by GPS.
162 weed species belonging to 33 plant families were identified in these fields. Multivariate analyses with canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showed that changes in the weed species distribution were due to soil characters (pH, Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Sodium, Potassium, silt percent, clay and loam in soil tissue, cation exchange capacity, EC) and environmental conditions during former years. The first and second RDA axes described 64% of variations in the weed populations affected by climatic factors. Winter wild oat (Avena ludoviciana L.), ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaud.), wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis L.) and canary seed (Phalaris brachystacys Link.) in areas of high temperature and low altitude, had a wide distribution. High evaporation increased wild barely (Hordeum spontaneum C. Koch.), Corn cleavers (Galium tricornutum Dandy.) and Vetch (Vicia assyriaca Boiss.) density during last decade. Where the soil nitrogen and phosphorus rates were high, Wild barely (Hordeum spontaneum C. Koch.) density was found frequently in wheat fields of Kermanshah. In the wheat fields of Kermanshah, Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.) and wild safflower (Carthamus oxyacantha M. B.) were more abundant in clay soils. High Corn cleaver (Galium tricornutum Dandy.) density was found in alkaloid and sandy soils.
Generally predict that if the temperature rise over the next few years, weed density and abundance of wild oat, ryegrass and wild mustard will be increased in irrigated wheat fields.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the project by agricultural Research education and extension organization and College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Tehran University.

Agricultural biodiversity has spatial, temporal and scale dimensions especially at agro-ecosystem levels. These agro-ecosystems that are used for agriculture are determined by three sets of factors: the genetic resources (biodiversity), the physical environment and the human management practices. Most agricultural areas can be returned to their natural landscape after subsequent generations. Studies on spatial patterns of species diversity are fundamental to biological conservation. Agricultural biodiversity is essential to satisfy basic human needs for food and livelihood security and it is active lymanaged by farmers and many components need human interference (Maguran, 1996).
FAO estimates that 75% of crop varieties have been lost during the last 100 years. One third of the 6.500 domestic livestock races are endangered. The genetic erosion of crops and livestocks threatens food security.
Plant diversity of usually evaluated by many indexes of which Shannon index is the most important ones. This index in agroecosystem rarely exists. Koocheki et al. (2004) and Nassiri Mahallati et al. (2005) in comprehensive surveys evaluated agrobiodiversity of agricultural systems at species variety and cropping systems for Iran and they found that the diversity at all levels have been declining due to introduction of new agricultural technology. In consideration to the lack of studies, this study was conducted in order to evaluate the biodiversity of agronomical and horticultural productions in Isfahan province and to assess relation of biodiversity and climate.
This study was performed for Isfahan province in 2014. For this purpose, 24 regions of the province were selected. Planting area, species richness, species evenness and alpha and beta diversity of different agronomical and horticultural productions were determined. The information about agronomical and horticultural planting area for different regions of Isfahan was gathered. Agronomical crops were classified to seven groups; cereal, pulses, vegetable, forage, industrial crops and medicinal plants and horticultural plant classified into 2 groups; temperate and tropical fruits. The Shannon index was calculated based on the cultivated area as equation 1. For determination of distribution condition of the crops we used from evenness index. Alpha and beta diversity was calculated by spices richness- area equation for different climate of province.
The result showed that tropical fruits (76.2%) and cereal (59.36%) showed the highest planting area and medicinal plants (1.09%) were included the lowest planting area in Isfahan province. Semirom and Borkharomeymeh regions had the highest and lowest horticultural planting area, respectively. The highest planting area of agronomical products was observed in Isfahan and the lowest amount of the trait was gained in Khorobiabanak. The highest species richness in horticultural plants was in Kashan, Lenjan and Natanz (17 species) regions and the lowest was obtained in Aranobidgol (with three species) regions, respectively. This condition was in line with climate of the regions. Ardestan and Isfahan regions were contained the highest (29 species) and Khorobiabanak had the lowest (11 species) species richness of agronomical plants. The highest and lowest species evenness of horticultural productions was gained in Isfahan (0.83) and Semirom (0.192), respectively. Felavarjan, Khomeinishahr, Kashan, Nain and Najafabad regions had the highest and Isfahan region was contained the lowest species evenness of agronomical productions. Many study demonstrated that there is a positive and high correlation between species evenness and diversity. This condition was true for our study. The forage and vine crop showed the highest (0.929) and lowest (0.442) Shannon indices, respectively. The lowest and highest alpha diversity were observed in moderate and desert-hot climates, respectively. It because that the planted crop in moderate climate was higher than desert-hot climate. Desert-moderate climate was obtained the highest beta diversity.
The results showed that tropical fruits and cereal were content the main planting area and medicinal plants were included the lowest planting area of Isfahan. The highest species richness in horticultural plants was in Kashan, Lenjan and Natanz regions. Ardestan and Isfahan regions were contained the highest and Khorobiabanak had the lowest species richness of agronomical plants. The highest and lowest species evenness of horticultural productions was gained in Isfahan and Semirom, respectively. The lowest and highest alpha diversity was observed in moderate and desert-hot climates, respectively. Desert-moderate climate was obtained the highest beta diversity.

Weeds are main factors reducing crops yield, especially under organic farming conditions (). It has been reported that weed populations are more in organic farming compared to conventional cropping systems, resulting in more reduction of growth and yield. Although the chemical control is a fast and effective way for controlling weed populations, some negative impacts of the recent weed management on public health and the natural environment, increased the concerns of using weed chemical compositions. Thus, non-chemical weed control is in high importance. Intercropping, an agronomical operation in which two or more crops are grown simultaneously in the same field, is one of the most important methods for increasing biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems (Amosse et al., 2013; Rostami et al., 2009; Yuan-Quan et al., 2012). Therefore, the current research was aimed to evaluate the possible non chemical controlling of weeds in a maize-cowpea intercropping system.
A field experiment was conducted in the north of Khuzestan during the growing season 2013-2014. The experiment was based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Maize and cowpea were planted in two sole crop systems and four intercropping systems based on an additive series, including T1:100 percent maize percent cowpea, T2: 100 percent maize percent cowpea, T3: 100 percent maize percent cowpea and T4: 100 percent maize흍 percent cowpea. No chemical materials (fertilizer and pesticide) were used during growing season. Environmental usage by intercropping patterns was evaluated by measuring photosynthetically active radiations (PAR) (mean of five points in each plot, selected randomly) and soil moisture content at three stages. At harvest time, all plants of each plot were harvested and grouped and weighed according to their species type. Complementary effect of intercropping in using environmental resources was calculated using relative yield total (RYT) index. Weed smothering efficiency (WSE) was used to evaluate the effect of intercropping on reducing weeds the dry weight.
Results indicated that soil moisture content, PAR interception and soil temperature were affected by cropping patterns. The lowest and highest values of soil temperatures were observed in intercropping and sole crop systems, respectively. Intercropping systems exploited soil water more than sole crops. PAR interception was higher in intercropping compared to sole cropping. However, sole cowpea showed lower PAR interception compared to maize sole crop. Relative yield total (RYT) index was more than unity in all intercropping systems. Weed smothering efficiency (WSE) showed that dry weight of weeds was reduced by 21-26 and 28-42 percentages in intercropping systems compared to sole maize and sole cowpea cropping systems, respectively. The growth of weeds (in terms of total dry weight) in intercropping systems were reduced in which from five recorded weed species, the dry weight of them, including amaranth (Amaranthus retondus L.), pigweed (Echinocloa cruss-gali L.), purslane (Portulaca oleraceae L.) and Halikakabon (Solanum nigrum L.) decreased in intercropping compared to sole cropping systems. Intercropping components showed a complementary relation in consuming environmental resources including soil moisture and PAR. Since the soil temperature was lower in intercropping compared to sole cropping, lower soil moisture in intercropping cannot be resulted from higher evaporation in intercropping, but also the widespread root system in intercropping resulted in higher efficiency in soil moisture consuming. Relative yield total more than unity, showing the advantages of intercropping in environmental resources consumption. Soil covering and higher biodiversity are two main factors reducing weeds growth in intercropping because the two recent factors lower PAR availability for weeds which can reduce weed. The current research, taller maize absorbed incoming PAR and shorter cowpea intercepted PAR at ground surface, resulting in lower PAR for weeds. Higher plant populations in intercropping have been reported as a main factor for reducing environmental resources availability for weeds reducing their growth.
The Relative yield total was more than unity, indicating the complementarity of maize and cowpea in intercropping systems for environmental resources consumption which was resulted in lower weeds growth. Thus, intercropping can be used as a non-chemical method for weeds control.

Dragonhead (Dracocephalum moldavica L.) is an annual herbaceous aromatic plant and belongs to Lamiaceae family. It is native to south of Siberia and Himalayan hillsides. The essential oil content shows great variation due to plant origin. The main constituents of dragonhead essential oil have been reported as geranial, geranyl acetate, neral and geraniol. Using organic manures and biofertilizers such as vermicompost and nitrogen fixing bacteria contain azotobacter and azospirillum has led to a decrease in the application of chemical fertilizers and has provided high quality agricultural products. Several studies have shown that organic and bio-fertilizers application such as vermicompost and Nitroxin can increase quantity and quality of essential oil of medicinal plants of dragonhead, anise and thyme (Darzi et al., 2013; Mafakheri et al., 2012; Mohammadpour Vashvaei et al., 2015). Therefore, the main objective of the present field experiment was to investigate the effects of vermicompst and Nitroxin biofertilizer on quantity and quality of essential oil of dragonhead.
An experiment was conducted as afactorial experiment in the base of randomized complete blocks design with six treatments and three replications at research field of Agriculture Company of Ran in Firouzkuh of Iran in 2013. The factors were Vermicompost in three levels (0, 5 and 10 t.ha-1) and Nitroxinbiofertilizer (inoculated seeds and non-inoculated). Inoculation was carried out by immersing the dragonhead seeds in the cells suspension of 108 CFU/ml for 15 min. The required quantities of vermicompost were applied and incorporated to the top 5 cm layer of soil in the experimental beds before planting of dragonhead seeds. Each experimental plot was 3 m long and 2.28 m wide with the spacing of 10 cm between the plants and 38 cm between the rows. There was a space of one meter between the plots and 2 meters between replications. In this study, quantitative and qualitative traits of dragonhead essential oil content, granial percent, granyl acetate percent, neral percent, graniol percent and neryl acetate percent in essential oil were evaluated. For determine the essential oil content (%), about 100 g dried herb of dragonhead (dried in shadow) as sample from the each plot were selected and then were subjected to hydro-distillation (Clevenger type apparatus) for 2 till 3 hours. For identifying the essential oil components, essential oil fraction was collected and subjected to GC and GC/MS (gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) analysis. Analysis of variance by using SAS software and mean comparisons by Duncan’s multiple range test (at the 5% probability level) was done.
The present resultsshow that the highest essential oil content in applying 5 t.ha-1 vermicompost and the maximum geranyl acetate in essential oil in applying 10 t.ha-1 vermicompost were obtained. Nitroxin biofertilizer showed significant effects on geranyl acetate in essential oil only, as the highest geranyl acetate were obtained by using the Nitroxin (inoculated seeds). Also, the intractions effect of factors on essential oil content, geranyl acetate, graniol and neryl acetate in essential oil were significant, as the highest essential oil content and neryl acetate percent at treatment of 5 t.ha-1 vermicompost and without application of Nitroxin and the maximum geranyl acetate and the lowest geraniol in essential oil at treatment of 10 t.ha-1 vermicompost and application of Nitroxin were obtained. According to the results of this study, the maximum essential oil quantity at treatment of 5 t.ha-1 vermicompost and without application of Nitroxin and the highest essential oil quality at treatment of 10 t.ha-1 vermicompost and application of Nitroxin were obtained.
Vermicompost application positively influenced on quantity and quality of essential oil dragonhead, as the highest essential oil content in treatment of application of 5 t.ha-1 vermicompost and the highest essential oil quality in treatment of integrated application of 10 t.ha-1 vermicompost and Nitroxin were obtained. On the base of research results, organic and bio-fertilizers application such as vermicompost and Nitroxin in a sustainable agriculture system can be caused in improvement of qualitative characters of dragonhead.

Energy is one of the most important commodities that make up a large proportion of international trade. Among all the countries in the world, Iran is known as semi-industrial developing country which is rich in energy such as non-renewable energy in particular fossil fuel. Use of energy affects the environment in various forms of pollution. In the agricultural sector, the FAO report states that livestock production has a major contribution to the world’s environmental problem (Sutton et al., 2011).
This study analyzes energy flow and greenhouse gas emission in conventional dairy farms in Mazandaran province. The required data for this study was collected by conducting interviews and filling up questionnaires from 26 cattlemen. From the questionnaires, information on five inputs such as labor, livestock feeding, diesel fuel, electricity and technical equipment and machines as well as milk product for 159 dairy cattle was collected. Finally, energy productivity, efficiency and emissions of greenhouse gases were calculated for Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxid (N2O) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2).
The results indicated that total energy which has been used to produce one liter of milk was 27.745 Mega Jul. Livestock feeding and fuel were energy inputs that has been extensively consumed. In this relation, 47.4% and 28.5% of the total energy consumption were drawn from the livestock feeding and fuel, respectively. In the study conducted by Sainz (2003), livestock feeding with 70% of the total energy consumption was also found as the largest input in terms of consuming energy. Technical equipment with 22.8% of the total energy consumption was found the third place. A low proportion (0.8%) of the total energy consumption was drawn from labor. Electric power with 0.5% of the total energy consumption was placed at the last. Energy efficiency was measured at 0.257. The proportion of renewable and non-renewable energy in one-litter milk production was measured by 48.2% and 51.8%, respectively. The total greenhouse gas emitted toproduceone litter of milk is equal to 0.622 kg of carbon dioxide that is higher than the amount of carbon dioxide generated from dairy farms in the United States (Sainz, 2003), but lower than the amount produced by dairy farms in Portugal (Castanheira et al., 2010). For the European countries, the average of greenhouse gas emission generated from dairy farms was calculated about 0.45 carbon dioxide equivalent. Technical equipment, machines and fuel with generating 0.45 and 0.16 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent were the most contribution to greenhouse gas emission. According to the calculations, the two inputs emitted 72.3% and 25.7% of the total greenhouse gas emission in producing one litter of milk. Only 2% of the total greenhouse gas emission that is equal to 0.012 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent was created from electricity generation. In the United States, diesel fuel and electricity with a contribution of 27% to 40% of the total greenhouse gasemissions were realized as the most polluted inputs. Furthermore, in Ireland and Britain, the diesel fuel and electricity with producing 0.03 and 0.002 of carbon dioxide equivalent were realized as the most polluted inputs for producing one litter of milk. This suggests that diet re-formulation with special consideration to the output is an effective solution to the problem mentioned above. Considering technical equipment and fuel as the most pollutant inputs, transferring equipment from natural gas consumption to diesel consumption decreases both energy consumption and negative-environmental externalities.
Considering that the livestock feeding has the largest amount of energy consumption, thedairy cow feed formulation should be considered as the most important concern. In relation to diesel fuel, replacement of natural gas with diesel fuel can reduce greenhouse gas emissions at a large extend

Cultivation of medicinal plants in agricultural ecosystems plays an important role in the diversification and sustainability of these systems (Rezaei-Chiyaneh & Dabbagh Mohammadi Nassab, 2014). Therefore, the application of ecological principles such as multi-ship system seems essential in the production of these plants. Zarifpour et al. (2014) in intercropping arrangements of cumin and chickpea showed that different cropping patterns had a significant effect on chickpea and cumin yield and the highest essential oil and land equivalent ratio achieved by planting ratio 50% cumin 50% chickpea. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were to examine the effect of different intercropping patterns of black cumin and basil with bean on their yield and qualitative traits.
In order to evaluate some quantitative and qualitative traits of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) and basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) in different intercropping patterns with bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and land use efficiency, a field experiment was conductedbased on a randomized complete block design with eight treatments and three replications at the farm located in West Azerbaijan province in Nagadeh, Iran during growing reason about 2013-2014. Cropping patterns included row intercropping (one row of black cumin one row of bean one row of basil) and strip intercropping (one row of black cumin two rows of bean one row of basil, two rows of black cumin four rows of bean two rows of basil, three rows of black cumin six rows of bean three rows of basil, four rows of black cumin eight rows of bean four rows of basil) and their solecropping.
Black cumin was harvested when they turned brown, dried and shelled, and bean was harvested when the first pod of the plants fully matured and dried. Basil was harvested in the first and the second harvest at 50% of flowering.
Land Equivalent Ratio (LER)
Land equivalent ratio of basil, black cumin and bean was calculated using equation 1 (Koocheki et al., 2014): Equation 1: Where, Y1, Y2 and Y3 represent basil, black cumin and bean yield in intercropping, respectively and B1, B2 and B3 represent basil, black cumin and bean yield in solecropping, respectively.
Results revealedthat the economic yield of three plants was significantly affected by treatments and theaverage yield was higher in solecropping than intercropping. By increasing in strip width seed yield of black cumin, dry matter yield in the first,and the second harvest of basil were decreased 30, 29, and 24 percent, respectivelycompared to monoculture. However, seed yield and biological yield of bean did not indicate any significant differences at solecropping with four rows of black cumin eight rows of bean four rows of basil. Higher seed yield and biological yield of sole cropped may be due to the fewer disturbances in the habitat in homogeneous environment of monocropping systems. Moreover, no significant difference between sole cropping of bean with combinations of 4 rows black cumin 8 rows bean 4 rows basil may be due to facilitative interaction in this combination. The percentage of essential oil in black cumin and basil of all treatments was higher than solecropping. Higher essential oil yield in intercropped could be due to the positive effect of bean such as nitrogen fixation for black cumin and basil. The essential oil content of black cumin and basil are, furthermore, positively affected by intercropping with bean.The maximum land equivalent ratio (1.93) was obtained in two rows of black cumin four rows of bean two rows of basil that represents an increase advantages in intercropping than solecropping.
The results showed that quantitative and qualitative yield of three species was affected by planting ratio. The maximum seed and biological yield of three species were obtained at solecropping. The percentage of essential oil in black cumin and basil of all treatments were higher than solecropping. The LER index was higher than one in all intercropping treatments compared to solecropping systems. Generally,it seems that the cropping pattern “two rows of black cumin four rows of bean two rows of basil“ is remarkably effective to increase the economic income and land use efficiency.

Energy analysis of agricultural ecosystem is essential for sustainable production. The relation between agriculture and energy is very close. Agriculture is an energy consumer and the energy supplier. Agriculture’s use of energy is recognized in three external inputs: labor, machines, and fertilizers (Connor et al., 2011). Significant gains in energy efficiency were arisen in agriculture following the phenomenal increase in energy prices in the 1970s. Greater use of diesel motors, larger tractors, using conservation tillage methods and optimized fertilizer use efficiency were the main causes (Ozkan et al., 2004). Safa & Samarasinghe (2013) were reported that fuel consumption in tillage and harvesting was more than other operations in wheat fields of Canterbury, New Zealand. Effective application of agricultural techniques and efficient use of support inputs can minimize environmental problems and in consequence promote sustainable agricultural intensification. In this study, the energy flow investigated in irrigated and rain-fed wheat cropping systems under two tillage and no-tillage methods in the Shahrekourd city, during 2013.
The study was carried out in the Sharekourd city (Chaharmahal Bakhteyari province). This region is located within 32º 20' and 32º 21' Lat. N, 50º 48' and 50º 50' Lon. E. Data were collected from 40 farmers with questionnaire method. In this study, a randomized complete design with four scenarios (rain-fed and irrigated farming with tillage and no-tillage systems) was used, that 10 farms were considered as a replication in each scenario. All data detail information on the questionnaire were averaged and arranged. First, all inputs and outputs of wheat production were determined, quantified and entered into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, and then transformed into energy units and expressed in MJ.ha-1. Based on the total energy equivalents of the inputs and output and the energy use efficiency (energy ratio), net energy, energy productivity and specific energy were calculated. The input energy was divided into direct, indirect, renewable and non-renewable forms. Indirect energy included energy embodied in seed, fertilizers, chemicals, machinery; while direct energy covered human labor, water for irrigation, electricity and diesel fuel were used in the wheat production. The LSD test (P≤0.05) was used to compare means between all scenarios.
The results of data analysis indicated that maximum input energy was about 29,586 MJ.ha-1 in the irrigated fields under tillage and maximum output energy was about 70,743 MJ.ha-1 in the irrigated fields under no-till. In this study, the highest and lowest energy efficiency were obtained in irrigated system under no-tillage (2.43 in seed) and rain-fed system under tillage (1.03 in seed), respectively. The greatest contribution from total energy belonged to energy of nitrogen fertilizer (9,429 MJ.ha-1 in no-tillage and 1,092 MJ.ha-1 in tillage systems) and irrigation (8,323 MJ.ha-1 in no-tillage and 5,117 MJ.ha-1 in tillage systems) in irrigated cropping system and nitrogen fertilizer (8,529 MJ.ha-1 in no-tillage and 7,220 MJ.ha-1 in tillage systems) and seed (4,367 MJ.ha-1 in no-tillage and 2,412 MJ.ha-1 in tillage systems) in rain-fedfarming system. Therefore, it is necessary to focus more on nitrogen fertilizer consumption than the other factors to effectively reduce energy consumption in wheat cropping. In addition, the no-tillage system had high indirect and non-renewable energy forms in both wheat cropping systems. The high ratio of non-renewable energy in the total used energy inputs cause negative effects on the sustainability in agroecosystems.
Generally, irrigated cropping system under no-tillage method was the best condition for wheat production in Shahrekourdcity. The results revealed that there was a huge potential toimproveenergy efficiency of wheat production in this region. Furthermore, toreducenon-renewable energy use in the studied region, we recommended the use of chemical fertilizer specially nitrogen reduce by appropriate management of fertilizer, use of legume in crop rotation, use of green manure, organic fertilizer and manure.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Agriculture Service Centers of Shahrekourd and Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources (GUASNR).

Legumes after cereals are the second source of human food and in Iran they are the second most important food after the wheat. Legumes protein is four times as much as that of grains and 10 to 20 times as much as that of glandular plants. In addition, beans are planted in Iran in a wide area and knowing optimal farming factors can be an important step in increasing them.
One of the most important factors determining the yield of cowpea (Vign asinensis L.) is appropriate plant density. Plant density defines the number of plants per square meter, which in turn determines the area available to each individual plant. For most crops, plant density has a major influence on biomass, crop yield and economic profitability.
In common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), plant density can affect canopy architecture, light conversion efficiency, duration of vegetative growth, dry matter production, seed yield and ultimately, the economic productivity of a crop. Therefore, optimizing plant density, which may be defined by both the number of plants per unit area and the arrangement of plants on the ground, is a pre-requisite for obtaining higher productivity of common bean. However, the other yield components such as number and weight of pods and seeds per plant and 100- seed weight which are established at a later stage in the course of the crop cycle are significantly affected by environmental conditions. Furthermore, the contribution efficiency of these components in the final seed yield is also associated with the number of plants per unit area. Therefore, varying plant density may be a viable alternative to manipulate the productivity of bean under different environmental conditions through their changes in physiological processes. Madani et al. (2008) showed that plant density had significant effect on LAI and shoot dry weight of bean. Moeinit et al. (2009) reported the increase in common bean seed yield with the increase in plant density. Another important factor determining growth indices is manure. Integrated supply of nutrient to plants through planned combinations of organic and inorganic sources is becoming an increasingly important aspect of environmentally sound agriculture. There are reports which show that the application of manure on bean has improved yield and growth indices.
In order to study the effects of plant density and cow manure levels on four common bean cultivars an experiment was conducted as a factorial arrangement based on complete randomized block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, during two growing seasons of 2011-2012 and 2013-2014. The experimental treatments were plant density in three levels (13.13, 20 and 40 plants.m-2), three cow manure levels (0, 15 and 30 kg.ha-1) and four common bean cultivars (Gholi, Akhtar, Naz and D-81083). The plot size was 5×2 meter and the spacing between rows was 50 cm and the seeds were planted in four rows. In order to measure the growth indices, the destructive samplings were carried out every 10 days from 50 cm of row in each plot. All common bean plants were harvested by cutting at the soil surface. Dry matter (DM), leaf area index (LAI), crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR), of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were measured and calculated accordingly. Plants were then divided into leaf and stem. The areas of green leaves were measured using a Delta-T leaf area meter (Delta-T Devices, Cambridge, England). Then the samples, including stems and leaves were dried in a forced-air oven at 80 ˚C for 48 h and after witch total dry matter (TDM) was measured. The leaf area data was divided to ground area and the leaf area index (LAI) was obtained. The LAI data was fitted to the Gaussian equation (Equation 1) to predict the LAI of common bean in growth season: x (t)= a . Exp {-0.5((x-x0)/b) ^2} (Equation 1)
Where is the time (day), x (t): predicted LAI; a, the maximum LAI during growth season; b is the time that after that the LAI increase exponentially; x0, the time (day) that common bean had the highest LAI.
The sigmoid equation (Equation 2) was fitted to the TDM data and by derivation from this equation, the crop growth rate (CGR) (Equation 3) and relative growth rate (Equation 4) were obtained (Steinmaus and Norris, 2002): W (t) = a / 1 exp {-b (t-m)} (Equation 2)
CGR = b. w (t) {1-(w (t)/a)} (Equation 3)
RGR = b {1-(w (t)/a)} (Equation 4)
Where t is the time (day), W(t), common bean dry matter at time t; a, the maximum total dry matter of common bean; b, the slope of increasing the dry matter; m, the time that common bean had the maximum growth rate and CGR is crop growth rate. The regression analysis was performed by SAS 9.1 and the graphs were prepared by Excel.
The results showed that during the days after planting in all treatments, leaf area index first increased until 56 days after planting and then it had a descending trend. The highest slope of leaf area increase is related to plant density (40 plants.m-2). Although, decreasing plant density from 40 plants.m-2 to 13.13 decreased LAI 29% plants.m-2. The results revealed that the maximum of LAI was obtained in cow manure (30 t.ha-1) (2.57). LAI for four common bean cultivars were different. The cultivar Goli with 2.61 had the greatest LAI. Crop growth rate (CGR) in all treatments first increased slightly and then increased more quickly until 56 days after planting. Then CGR decreased with a sharp slope. Gradual increase of CGR at first was due to insufficient vegetative meristems; however, as the plant canopy was completed and due to more efficient application of light and increase of leaf area the rate of CGR increased quickly so that it was maximized and then it decreased due to increase of interplant competition, decrease of light penetration into canopy photosynthetic organs’ getting late and also assimilates mobilization into grains. In this study the lowest rate of plant growth recorded during growth stage belonged to 13.13 plant.m-2 density, 0 t.ha-1cow manure and Akhtar cultivar) (8.32 g.m-2.day, 7.90 g.m-2.day and 4.26 g.m-2.day, respectively). Relative growth rate decreased as the plant age increased so that at the end of growth season RGR was close to zero. At the beginning of growth stage, due to more penetration of light into the canopy and less shadow of the leaves on each other and the less respiration, RGR is more and its reduction slope is less. As time passes and vegetative and reproductive organs grow more, the shadow of leaves on each other increases and RGR decreases. Plant density with 40 plants.m-2 shows the highest primary RGR and the plant density with 3.13 plants.m-2 shows the lowest one. The highest RGR in the 56th day has been related to 30 t.ha-1cow manure.
We can conclude that indeterminate common bean cultivars such as Goli and Naz showed the greatest growth rate and these findings indicate that the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) crop has the ability to alter plant size and canopy structure in response to changes in plant density. These strategies can be used as cultural methods to reduce the competitive ability of weeds and maintain common bean growth at acceptable levels. However, there is a need to evaluate numerous common bean cultivars in different locations and years to find cultivars with high competitive ability and stability in yield.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the project by Vice President for Research and Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.

After crops harvesting, conditions and durations of storage are considered as the most crucial factors formaintaining the nutritional value and quality of agro-horticultural products such as tomato (Lycopersicom esculentum Mill.) and its waste reduction. However, the rhizopus rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) and black spot rot (Alternaria alternate) are the most important postharvest diseases in tomato during storage. In other word, among the factors reducing quality of the postharvest tomato, Rhizopus nigricans Ehrenb. (Rhizopus stolonifer) and Alternaria alternate (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. f. sp. lycopersici paly a special role in the contaminated tomato fruits that can affect its taste, firmness and stiffness.
In recent years, due to the problems and threats arising from the use of chemical fungicides in agricultural systems, principled management of alternative biological approaches for reducing the postharvest contamination in tomato, especially during storage, is emphasized more than ever.
Considering these conditions, the current study was aimed to investigate the effects of some medicinal plants including thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.), peppermint (Mentha piperita L.), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globules L.), caster bean (Ricinus communis L.) and tomato in their ability to control the rhizopus (Rhizopus nigricans) and black spot rot (Alternaria alternate) in tomato production under conventional and organic cropping systems.
The experiment was conducted at Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, during theyear of 2010. A completely randomized design was used based on factorial arrangement with three replications and 14 treatments. Two cropping production systems (conventional and organic) and seven medicinal plants (thyme, pennyroyal, peppermint, eucalyptus, caster bean, tomato and control) were the first and the second experimental factors, respectively.
After collecting plant samples from the research farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, each sample was separately placed in cardboard package and then was transferred to governesses. By observing the disease sign during storage, the tomato fruits were graded based on the severity of postharvest diseases (the rhizopus and black spot rot) on tomato as follow: First- grade (no disease), second- grade (observation of very low disease sign in fruits), third- grade (observation of low disease sign in fruits, low watery fruits), fourth- grade (observation of disease sign in one third of surface fruits, moderate watery fruits), and fifth- grade (observation of disease sign more than one third of surface fruits, high watery fruits).
For statistical analysis, non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test were performed using MINITAB software.
Based on Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test, organic and conventional cropping systems had different effects on storage- rot rate of tomato. In organic cropping systems, storage- rot rate (1.48 fruit per week) significantly decreased by 20%, compared to conventional cropping systems. In this regard, it has been reported that the soil fertility and applying organic fertilizer based on implementing organic farming systems has an important role in increasing the durability, nutritional value and quality of postharvest tomatoes.
According to the results, medicinal plants had significant effects on storage- rot rate in tomato. Results indicated that the medicinal plants significantly reduced storage rhizopus and black spot rot in tomato, except caster bean and tomato. Among the treatments, peppermint and pennyroyal considered as the most effective plants in reducing the storage- rot rate and increasing the rigid and healthy fruits; so that the use of these plants in a tomato packing significantly decreased the storage- rot rate by 21%, compared to control treatment.
As it can be seen from the results, a significant decrease in symptoms of fungal diseases and an increase in the number of healthy postharvest fruits due to application of mentioned plants can demonstrate the ability of these plants in reducing the activity of fungal pathogens during tomato storage. In line with the results, Feng & Zheng (2007) reported that the application of essential oil of thyme can play an effective role in controlling growth of fungal pathogens in tomato through reducing sporesgermination ability.
In conclusion, the results underlined the role of organic systems in improving the quality of postharvest tomatoes, compared with conventional systems. Moreover, for controlling the fungal pathogens, bio-products derived from medicinal plants can be especially considered in line with processing the postharvest tomatoes.