مجله پژوهش های حبوبات ایران
سال هفتم شماره 1 (پیاپی 13، بهار و تابستان 1395)

International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) defined seed vigour as "the sum of those properties of the seed which determine the level of activity and performance of the seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence". In any seed lot, losses of seed vigour results in the reduction of the ability of seeds to carry out all the physiological functions that allow them to perform. This process, called physiological ageing, starts before harvest and continues during harvest, processing and storage. Any given seed vigour test must be able to provide a more sensitive index of seed quality than the germination test and provide a consistent ranking of seed lots in terms of their potential performance. It must also be objective, rapid, simple and economically practical, reproducible and interpretable. Internationally, many vigour tests have been proposed such as standard germination test, cold test, electrical conductivity test, hiltner test, tetrazolium test, controlled deterioration test, accelerated aging test, etc. The accelerated aging test provides valuable information on storage and seedling field emergence po¬tentials. In the accelerated aging test, seeds are hydrated to a specific level when ex¬posed to relatively high temperature (40 to 45 oC) and humidity (around 100 % relative Humidity). Following this aging treatment, seeds are subjected to a germination test and higher vigor seed lots tolerate this aging condition better than lower vigor seed lots and produce a higher percentage of normal seedlings. In this study, chickpea seed lots were exposed to different temperatures and durations in order to calibration of accelerated aging test to predict the seedling emergence under field conditions.
This research was conducted as two laboratory and field tests at Campus of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran, in 2012. In the laboratory test, accelerated aging treatments (temperature and duration) including 41, 43, and 45 oC and duration 0 (control), 48, 72, 96, 120, and 144 h were performed on 13 chickpea seed lots. Following this aging treatment, seeds were subjected to standard germination test and different traits (including final germination percentage, mean daily germination, daily germination speed, germination rate, germination index, seedling vigor index, and efficiency of seed storage usage) were evaluated. Theses 13 seed lots belonged to both kabloli (Hashem, Azad, ILC-482, Bivanij, Arman cultivars) and desi (Kaka and Pirooz cultivars) types. In the field tests, these 13 chickpea seed lots were planted as a randomized complete block design with four replications. In field test, different seedling traits (including final emergence percentage, mean time to emergence, mean daily emergence, daily emergence speed, emergence rate, and field emergency index) were evaluated. Finally, correlation of different traits related to seed vigor in the laboratory test was determined with percentage and rate of seedling emergence in the field.
Analysis of variance in the laboratory test showed that the effects of seed lots, accelerated aging treatments and their interaction were significant on all above mentioned traits except for efficiency of seed storage usage. Different levels of accelerated aging treatments had significant effects on germination characteristics, so that germination characteristics were decreased with increasing of temperature and duration in accelerated aging test. In the field test, chickpea seed lots were different significantly in most seedling traits. Means comparison of laboratory and field experiments showed that the new seed lots had higher germination and vigor characteristics than the old seed lots. Correlation analysis showed that, shoot dry weight in the accelerated aging test under 43 oC , 48 h and root length under 43 oC, 72 h had the highest correlation with seedling emergence percentage in the field test. Root length under 41 oC, 72 h and shoot dry weight under 43 oC, 72 h had the highest correlation with seedling emergence rate in the field test, too.
It seems that accelerated aging test is recommendable to predict the seedling emergence of chickpea in field conditions. The accelerated aging test under 41 oC, 72 h and 43 oC, 48 h had the highest correlation with both percentage and rate of seedling emergence in the field test.

Somatic embryogenesis is an efficient platform for the generation of transgenic plants and synthetic seeds (Kiran et al., 2005). Somatic embryo’s growth and development were influenced by different factors, including photoperiod, genotype as well as acidity, plant growth regulators (PGRs) and nutrient content of tissue culture media (May & Trigiano, 1991). Darkness is one of the important and vital affecting variables on somatic embryogenesis (Angoshtari et al., 2009). In some studies, positive effects of darkness on some plant species have been reported. This study was carried out to investigate the potential of somatic embryogenesis from leaf, hypocotyl and epicotyl explants of two chickpea cultivars (Piruz and Kaka) on basal Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium in darkness and light conditions.
In this study, hypocotyl, epicotyl and young leaf segments of two chickpea cultivars “Piruz” and “Kaka” were used as explant. Surface sterilization was performed by soaking chickpea seeds in 96% ethanol solution for 60 Seconds and immediate immersion in 2% sodium hypochlorite solution for 15 minutes. Following rinsing three times in sterile double-distilled water, the seeds were aseptically cultured on free-PGRs ½ MS medium (Murashige & Skoog, 1962). After 3-4 days, explants were excised from germinated seedlings and implanted on MS medium supplemented with different concentration of 2,4-D and NAA (2, 3, 4 and 5 mg/l) as well as different levels of TDZ and Picloram (1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5 mg/l) to the initiation of embryogenic callus. To produce globular embryos, 16 hormonal treatments were then incubated at 25±1 ºC under continuous darkness and photoperiod (16-h light and 8-h darkness) at a light intensity of 36 µmol m–2 s–1. In order to develop the embryogenesis, another three treatments were used under similar condition. For embryonic callus induction the following characteristics were studied: embryogenesis frequency, the frequency of globular, heart shape and cotyledonary embryos. Regenerated plantlets from mature embryos were washed thoroughly with sterile water and then transplanted to plug tray and fertilized with Hogland solution two times per week. Plants were transferred to the pot and kept under greenhouse condition. Plants were finally transferred to open-field condition. This study was conducted as the factorial design based on completely a randomized design with five replicate (jar) and four shoots per each jar. The collected data were analyzed by SAS ver. 9.1 software. Mean comparisons were carried out by Duncan test at the 1% level of significancy.
The results showed that auxins were more effective than cytokinins in terms of callus induction. The highest frequency of embryogenesis was achieved with hypocotyl explants in 2 mg/l 2,4-D in Kaka cultivar under constant darkness. For the development of embryos, callus with globular embryo were transferred to MS medium supplemented with different PGRs. The frequency of embryogenesis was higher in dark condition than that of in the light condition. During callogenesis, plant species require different physical (light and temperature) conditions e.g. some plant produces more callus in darkness while in the other species, callus induction and proliferation took place in a normal photoperiod (Suhasini et al., 1994). It probably depends on the genetic structure of the plant. The highest percentage of globular embryo development of the heart shape embryo and then to cotyledonary embryo was obtained from Kaka leaf explants growing on medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l BA 0.5 mg/l of 2,4-D. 2¬mg/l of 2,4-D in both dark and light conditions was induced the highest rate of embryogenesis. For the initiation of embryogenesis, 2, 4-D play an undeniable role because of this synthetic auxin can lead to overexpression of different genes during stress as well as genes involved in initiation of somatic embryogenesis (Kitamiya et al., 2000; Quiroz-Figueroa, 2006). 2,4-D by its strong auxin activity, can influence metabolism of other phytohormones which in turn affect somatic embryogenesis directly or indirectly (Quiroz-Figueroa, 2006). A prerequisite to induce somatic embryo is a reorganization of cell physiology, metabolism and gene expression (Fehret et al., 2002). In this study, with increasing concentrations of the 2,4-D, embryogenesis was reduced. Additionally increasing of 2,4-D concentration could reduce frequency of embryogenesis.
Somatic embryo induction depends on various factors including cultivar, type, concentration and combination of PGRs as well as explant type. By comparison to the light condition, darkness is in favor of somatic embryo biogenesis. Between two cultivars, Kaka showed better ability in formation of somatic embryos. Response of a plant tissue or specific organ in somatic embryogenesis process is the outcome of endogenous hormones and exogenous growth regulators, and this response can be physiologically varied depending on the type of explant.

Studies on the fall-winter sowing of chickpea were commenced in 1974-75 at Mediterranean regions. For example, Singh et al, (1997) studied some chickpea cold and ascochyta blight tolerant genotypes in fall-winter sowing for 10 years (1983-1993) on three regions in Syria and Lebanon under rain-fed conditions. The mean of seed yield for 10 years in the fall-winter sowing was 1686 kg.ha-1 that showed 70% of increase comparing to seed yield in spring sowing with 994 kg.ha-1. Biological yield in fall-winter sowing had the same increase record comparing with spring sowing, too. They declared that the extended vegetative period in fall-winter sowing than spring sowing was the cause of this result. Also, studies on fall sowing of chickpea in Iran have shown that significant enhancement of seed yield compared to spring sowing has arisen from exploiting of sufficient water and extending of a growth period in fall sowing. Regarding to the results of previous studies on fall-winter sowing of chickpea that demonstrated possibility of this type of sowing in cold areas, this experiment was performed in order to evaluate yield and yield components of 152 other chickpea genotypes in fall sowing.
This study was carried out in three years of 2002-2003, 2003-2004 and 2004-2005 at the Experimental Field of College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, north-eastern Khorassan state of Iran. This study was performed in rainfed conditions with only two times irrigation at planting stage and 20 days after that. In the first year (2002-2003), 46 chickpea genotypes (30 cold tolerant accessions resulted from previous studies at Mashhad and some genotypes from ICARDA and Canada) were planted based on Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. During this year, cold injury caused complete loss so, in the next two years by adding of 106 other accessions, totally, 152 chickpea genotypes with 4 checks were evaluated based on the Augmented Preliminarily Design. The seeds of genotypes were attained from Mashhad Chickpea Collection (MCC), Research Center for Plant Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The seeds of each genotype in all trials were sown in plots containing one row with a length of 2.5 meter. The distance between seeds on the row was 0.1 meter and rows were placed 0.5 meter apart. In the second and third trials, genotypes were categorized according to their seed yield amounts to several groups and some statistical indices such as mean, standard deviation and range were calculated on their measured quantitative traits (such as seed yield, biological yield, and yield components). Based on data analysis, existing of significant differences among genotypes and controls were studied between them. Finally, superior genotypes were selected and introduced for continuing of investigations at future.
In the first year, the hard, cold and freezing temperatures occurred after emerging of seedlings, repeatedly and then all plants were lost. There were 69 days with freezing temperatures through the period of planting to late winter. The lowest temperature through this period was -12.8°C that occurred in November and December. Based the on results, in the next two years, there were significant differences (P≤0.05) among genotypes with each other and with checks in yield, yield components and plant height. In the second year (2003-2004), the range of seed yield among the first yield group (39.5% of all genotypes) was from 251 to 622 g.m-2, while in the third year (2004-2005) this range among the first yield group (20% of all genotypes) was from 254 to 442 g.m-2. In the second and third years, the highest survival percent, meaning among all five groups was observed in the first groups. Totally, 20 chickpea genotypes with the most yields for each year were selected and introduced for the next studies.
Regarding to rainfed conditions, the higher seed yields in the second year comparing to the third year can be related to greater precipitations in this trial (271 mm) compared to the third (202 mm), as well as better distribution of rainfall in the second year coinciding with the vegetative growth period. Occurrence of higher temperatures at the end of the growing season in the third year also could be a limiting factor for reproductive growth of chickpeas. It seems that the existing of only one genotype (MCC798), communally in two years among 20 superior genotypes, revealed this fact that these genotypes respond to various environmental circumstances, differently. Regarding to mean of seed yield of chickpea in Iran (410 kg.ha-1), achieving of seed yield records of 3800 to 6220 kg.ha-1 at the second trial and 2740 to 4420 kg.ha-1 at the third trial in this study that were obtained from next to 40 chickpea genotypes, reveals a promising potential for a fall sowing of chickpea in Mashhad. However, concerning about this fact that the temperature in the two years of this study did not drop less than -13.2°C on the second trial and -9.2°C on the third, it is suggested to investigate of phenological and morpho-phisiological aspects of these genotypes more, especially in colder areas in order to be sure of their cold tolerance, sustainably. Finally, 20 chickpea genotypes with the most yields for each year (totally 39 genotypes) were selected and introduced for the next studies. Considering the importance of field investigations, these results can be completely efficient for continuing research and development programs on the subject of chickpea cold tolerance in the present and the future.

Proteins are one of the basic and essential required compounds for life, and the creatures receive it either from a plant or animal origin. It has been reported that the positive effects caused by applying the magnetic field are due to the paramagnetic properties of the cells within the plant, and pigments such as the Chloroplast. Biophysical methods (magnetic fields, electricity, etc.) could improve the growth of plants with high energy rates. These methods, improve the energy levels independent from their source, and increase the electric potential of the cell membrane. Stimulating physical methods do not affect the physiological traits of the plant controlled by the genetic systems. In order to study the effect of intensity and duration of magnetic field on some properties of seed germination of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivar ILC482 an experiment was conducted in Advanced Research Laboratory of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The goal of the experiment was to determine the possibility of improving the germination and vigor of the chickpea seed by using various intensities and durations of a magnetic field.
The experiment included magnetic field intensities (100 and 150 mT magnetic field), five exposure duration (60, 120, 180, 240 and 350 min) and control. After preparing the seeds, 40 seeds were placed in a transparent plastic bag between the magnetic poles in order to apply the magnetic field. For applying the magnetic field, the magnetic generator was used made up from two strong, constant magnets which the opposite poles faced one another, and the field intensity was changed by changing the distance between them. The seeds with a root length of over 2 millimeters were recorded as germinated. At the end of the test (day 10), the shoot and root lengths, seed, root, and shoot fresh weights were measured and recorded. The statistical tests were done via the MSTAT-C and SIGMAPLOT 12 software, and the EXCEL 2007 also was used in drawing the charts. Duncan's multiple range tests was used to compare means. All statements of significance were based on probability of P

Legumes are the most important source of vegetable protein supply. Mungbean (Vigna radiate (L.) Wilczek) produces seeds contain 22-25 percent protein and high nutritional value for human and also is a major source of protein in most modern societies. Rapid seed germination and emergency, is an important factor determining the ultimate yield of the plant. Salinity is the most important non-life-threatening of plants, especially in the bean. Drought has affect plant growth by reducing water potential in the root zone or create toxicity the sodium and chlorine ions in seedling and or through nutrient imbalance by decrease in absorption rate or a reduction in the transmission rate of the shoots. Nowadays the seed pretreatment technique has introduced as an agent for improvement, seed germination and plant establishment under environmental stress. Seed priming with using pure water is a very simple and cost-effective method that reduce the time required for water absorption in seeds, the mean and percent of germination is improved and expedited emergence and establishment of seedling.
This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of hydropriming on germination component of mung bean under salinity stress, with a factorial experiment using a RBD design with four replications. The hydropriming at 4 levels (0, 8, 16 and 24 hours) and the salinity stress at 5 levels of 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 dsi/m were used. Before running the test, seeds were washed with a solution of 10% sodium hypochlorite disinfectant for 15 minutes and then 3 times with distilled water.To hydropriming, Seeds were soaked according to levels specified time in distilled water at 25 °Celsius (room temperature). Then 25 seeds were placed within a sterile Petri dish with filter paper. The potential of zero bar was used for distilled water. Five ml of NaCl solution with the potential of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 ds/m was added to each petri dish. Then petri dishes were coated by parafilm and placed in Germinator at 25 ° Celsius and in the dark for 8 days. The average and percent germination, the radicle and plumule length, fresh weight and dry weight, allometric index, seedling water percent and seed vigor of mung bean were measured.
The results showed that there were significant differences between treatments for all the variables.In addition, the interaction of hydropriming with salinity stress had a highly significant effect on radicle and plumule length, fresh weight and dry weight, allometric index, seedlings, water percent while there was no significant differences in treatments for average and percent germination and seed vigor. Mean comparisons showed that the highest percentage of germination, radicle and plumule length, dry weight and seed vigorwere related to distilled water and 24 hours hydropriming treatment. The highest radicle and plumule fresh weight and allometric index were related to distilled water and 8 hour hydropriming. The lowest of seedling water percent was related to distilled water and 24 hour hydropriming. The lowest traits were observed in plants under salinity stress at 8 dsi/m and non-hydropriming except seedling water percent. The results of this study showed that with increasing of salinity all indicators of germination decreased. Hydropriming treatment improves seed germination indicators under salt stress in mungbean plant. Hydropriming improves cell division and growth seedling, increases the rate of net photosynthesis and protein synthesis and with modification of osmotic balance fixes turgor pressure in seedling and prevents plasmolysis of seedling. Hydropriming by increasing the availability of ATP, increase the integrity of cell membranes, change membrane components such as fatty acids and prevent spills out of the seeds during seed priming and thus increase seedling growth can improve germination indices.
Since the hydropriming is easy, low cost and low risk method, can be used as an effective strategy to increase the germination percentage, speed and uniformity of germination (McDonald, 2000), emergence of seeds and improving quality and quantity of the yield under the adverse conditions (Ma et al., 2006) and increase resistance to salinity in plants.

Increasing world population is facing critically depletion of water resources, which will be along with increasing food demands to cover the human needs all over the world. Therefore, water scarcity is increasingly a major limitation for increased agricultural production and food security in this century. The scarcity of qualified water, has made farmers to consider the water of marginal quality for usage in agriculture. The Water’s molecular structure is affected by a magnetic field, so that a change in the water relations can affect the overall plant growth. One of the approaches that provides higher productivity and quality assurance is using static electromagnetic fields. The use of magnetically treated water for irrigation in agriculture is considered as one of the important environmental clean methods. The water treated in the magnetic field or pass through a magnetic device called magnetized water. The influence of magnetic field on various growth processes of plants such as seed germination, seedling growth, plant growth, yield and the properties of crop quality have been the object of several researches.
Salinity is defined as the presence of excessive concentration of soluble salts in the soil or in the irrigation water that suppresses plant growth and eventually yield. Salt stress has been identified as one of the most serious environmental factors limiting the productivity of crop plants. The deleterious effects of salinity on plant growth are associated with 1) low osmotic potential, 2) nutritional imbalance, 3) specific ion effect, or 4) a combination of these factors. In addition, there is evidence that salt stress can induce oxidative stress due to generation of reactive oxygen species.
Phaseolus vulgaris is an annual growing to 2 m height and is frost tender. Bean leaves are trifoliate (three-leaved), arranged in an alternate fashion on the stem and have oval or diamond-shaped leaflets. Leaf color can be green. The study was undertaken to evaluate the use of magnetically treated water in improving seed germination and early seedling growth (i.e., radical and plumule growth) of the bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in the presence and absence of salt stress. The work was carried out at the germination stage because germination is known as a key process that allows the seed embryo to grow and evolve into photosynthetic organism, and it is also a critical stage for plant response to salinity.
In order to investigate the influence of magnetized water and salinity on germination characteristics and seedling of bean (Derakhshan variety), an experiment was conducted based on complete randomized design in factorial arrangement with four replications at laboratory of the Agricultural College of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2014. Water types consisted of two levels (magnetized water and tap water) and five salinity levels: 0, 4, 6.5, 8.5 and 9.5 ds/m.
The following indices were also measured: Final Germination Percentage (FGP) and Germination Rate (GR) was calculate base on the below equation
FGP= (n / N) × 100
where n is the number of seed germination in per day and N is total number of seeds
GR=
where giis the number of seed germination in every count and di is the number of days till day n th.
(Dere and et al., 1998) Chlorophyll concentration was calculated using the following formula
Chla (μg/ml) =15.65 A666 - 7.340 A653
Chlb (μg/ml) =27.05 A653 - 11.21 A666
Cx=1000A470 – 2.270 Cha – 81.4Chb/227
Traits as length and dry weight of plumule and radical, biomass and seed vigor index were measured too.
Data was analyzed using MSTAT-C software and means were compared using Dunkan multiple range test in 5 percent probability.
The results showed that germination percentage, mean germination time, length and dry weight of the plumule and radical, biomass and seed vigor index decreased with increasing salinity, but magnetized water improved them. Magnetic water increased germination by 6% and reduced the mean germination time by 8%. Magnetized water improved biomass and seed vigor by 52 and 24 percent, respectively. Using magnetic water, improved radical length and plumule by 27 and 24 percentage, respectively. The simple effect of magnetized water and salinity caused significant amounts of chlorophyll a and b and carotenoid. Application of magnetic water increased chlorophyll a (12%) in the salinity level of zero compared with non-magnetic. So that magnetized water improved amount of chlorophyll a and increased carotenoid under salinity conditions. Other results showed that plant cells treated with magnetic represent magnetic properties of atoms placed in them and activates them later on.
Overall, results showed that exposure to magnetic fields and irrigation water with different salinity levels, decreased salinity (NaCl) effects on bean, accelerated germination and seedling growth and had an important role in improving the beans germination rate.

Plant responses to environmental stress have a central role in agricultural production. Responses results from events occurring at all levels of the organization, from biochemical reactions in cells to whole plant physiology. Many plants are injured when exposed to low non-freezing temperatures. However, data on the effects of night temperatures are scarce. On the other hand, nitric oxide (NO), as a plant growth regulator, has an important role in ameliorating stress induced damage in plants. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the role of NO during low temperature nights. In this research the changes in some physio-biochemical characters of Pea plants under NO and night temperature treatments were studied.
The fresh weights of roots and shoots, the contents of proline, soluble and insoluble sugars, ascorbic acid, and the activities of ascorbate peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase were evaluated. Seeds of chickpea, Cicer arietinum L. ILC482 variety were surface sterilized in sodium hypochlorite solution 1%, rinsed with sterilized water and germinated on moist filter papers in the dark for four days. Seedlings were transferred to plastic pots containing half-strength Hoagland solution, and were placed at 14 h photoperiod. Plants aged 14 days were randomly subdivided into two groups. One group received half-strength Hoagland solution (control) and another group was subjected half-strength Hoagland solution containing NO (0.1mM) for two days. Then, plants divided into three groups and, for 3 days, were subjected to 25/25, 25/15 and 25/5 ºC (day/night) regimes. After two days, shoots and roots were weighted for recording fresh weights. For assay of proline content, aliquots of fresh tissues were homogenized in 3% sulphosalicylic and centrifuged. Free proline contents were quantified using ninhydrin reagent and expressed as μmol/g FW. The total soluble sugars were determined by anthrone reaction at 625 nm in an 80% hot ethanol extract and expressed as mg/g FW. Later insoluble sugars were extracted from residues with HCl and determined by Anthrone reaction. In assay of ascorbate contents, 6% trichloroacetic acid extracted leaf tissues were mixed with 2,2-dipiridil. Then, for reduction of Fe3 to Fe2 by ascorbic acid mixture was incubated at 42 ºC and the absorbance values were recorded at 525 nm. Data expressed as μmol/g FW. For Enzyme assays, aliquots of fresh leaves were ground in cold extraction 100 mM phosphate buffers (pH 7.5) at 0-4 °C. After centrifugation of homogenates, enzymes assays were performed in the supernatant at 25 °C. Ascorbate peroxidase activity was measured by following the oxidation of ascorbate at290 nm. The Activity of Polyphenol oxidase in presence of pyrogallol was determined by measuring the increase in absorbance at 420 nm. The experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design with four replicates. The data were statistically analyzed by using Duncan's multiple range test to separate the means at p ≤ 0.05.
The fresh weights of roots and shoots, the contents of proline, soluble and insoluble sugars, ascorbic acid, and the activities of ascorbate peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase were evaluated. The results showed that nitric oxide pretreatment had a significant effect on the fresh weight of shoots, proline and soluble sugars contents, and polyphenol oxidase activity. Changes of night temperature were effective on all of the examined factors except shoots fresh weights. Interaction between nitric oxide and the temperature had a significant effect on fresh weights of roots and shoots, proline and soluble sugars contents, and ascorbate peroxidase activity. Data showed that maximum growth of plants occurred at 15 °C night temperature in the presence of NO. Proline contents of leaves were significantly decreased by falling night temperatures. NO treatments led to more reduction in proline under low night temperatures. In higher plants, proline is normally accumulated in response to stress factors. Night temperature reduction and NO treatment, probably, can act as signal for decreasing proline biosynthetic enzymes activities or for increasing proline degradative enzymes activities. Both soluble and insoluble sugars were increased significantly by falling night temperatures, and NO treatments had a positive effect. We can assume that falling of night temperatures can affect tissues metabolism, for preventing of damages, by accumulation of sugars. Falling of night temperatures increased ascorbate contents of leaves. Generally, ascorbate has antioxidative properties and high levels of foliar ascorbate can offer tolerance to plants under unfavorable conditions. Ascorbate peroxidase plays an important role in the metabolism of H2O2 in higher plants. In this study, falling of night temperatures led to decrease in the enzyme activity. However, enzyme activity increased significantly with the NO treatment at 5 °C. Ascorbate peroxidase activity is directly involved in the protection of plant cells against unfavorable environmental conditions.
In conclusion, falling night temperatures can significantly affect some biochemical markers of plants. The changes in roots and shoots are not showing the same patterns. Under low night temperatures, NO treatment can induce non enzymatic (ascorbate) and enzymatic (ascorbate peroxidase) defense systems for overcoming the deleterious effects of low temperature.

Lentil with about 28 percent protein occupies the second after soybean. It is one of the major crops in developing countries as a complement to cereals and is an excellent source of protein and amino acids in the diet. Results of studies shown that for most crops, including lentil, the occurrence of drought stress in some phenology stages cause irreparable damages to yield. Therefore, understanding the critical stages of plant to drought stress in order to provide the required humidity at the time plays an important role in yield performance and efficient use of water and soil resources. Supplementary irrigation at critical stages of water requirements of lentil is one of the most effective methods to achieve sustainable production in arid and semi-arid regions.
In order to study the effects of supplementary irrigation on growth characteristics of three lentil cultivars, an experiment was carried out as a strip block based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at Research Field, College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during 2008-9 growing season. Treatments were supplementary irrigated (full irrigation; one irrigation at each stage of branching, flowering, podding, seed setting (with an incidence of phenological stage at least 50 percent of plants a plot), and no irrigation) as main plots, and three lentil cultivars (Robat, & Kalpoosh (the local population in North Khorasan with the registration number of MLC245, and MLC183, respectively), and Gachsaran) as subplots. Lentil disinfected seeds were sown at depth of 2-3 cm and density of 200 plants/m2 in the second half of March. The size of experimental plots were 5×3.75 m and each plot had 10 rows with spacing of 37.5 cm. All treatments were irrigated once after planting to ensure the emergence of uniform seeds. Next irrigation was followed according to the treatments (IBPGR, 1985). Destructive sampling were performed to calculate the growth indices (such as TDW, LAI, CGR, RGR and NAR) from 10 plants chosen randomly from competing plants regarding the marginal effects from two weeks after plants emergence to final maturity (every 7 days; 10 steps). At the end of the growing season, seed yield was determined from 7.5 m2. The growth degree days (GDD) was used instead of calendar time to calculate growth indices using equation (1). The growth indices of LAI, CGR, RGR and NAR were calculated using equations (2-5). Growth Indices and linear regression curves were fitted using Excel 2007 software.
GDD = (Equation 1)
where GDD is the growth degree days, Tmax and Tmin are maximum and minimum daily temperature during test, respectively. Tb is plant base temperature (= 5 °C for lentil).
LAI= (1/GA)[(LA2Ⰽ)/2] (Equation 2) CGR= (1/GA)[(W2–W1)/(t2–t1)] (Equation 3) RGR= (lnW2–lnW1)/(t2–t1) (Equation 4) NAR= [(W2–W1)/(t2–t1)] [(lnLA2–lnLA1)/(LA2–LA1)] (Equation 5) where GA is ground area (m2), LA is leaf area (m2), W is shoot dry weigh (g) and t is GDD.
Results indicated that supplementary irrigation in flowering stage increased total dry weight (TDW), leaf area index (LAI), crop growth rate (CGR) and net assimilation rate (NAR) compared to other supplementary irrigations. Complete irrigation showed the highest growth characteristics during the growing season. Maximum values of total dry weight (507.4 gm-2), leaf area index (3.6), crop growth rate (1.35 gm-2 GDD-1), relative growth rate (0.04 gg-1 GDD-1), net assimilation rate (1.75 of gm-2 GDD-1) and seed yield (1213 kg ha-1) were obtained from irrigation at flowering stage following full irrigation. Amiri deh ahmadi et al. (2011) concluded that drought stress at flowering stage, reduced peas dry matter to minimum values. Singh (1995) also reported that water stress in all stages of growth, decreased leaf area index of beans, but stress before flowering had the greatest impact. Other researchers showed that in terms of drought, crop growth rate decreased due to the decline in photosynthesis and respiration rate. Other researchers concluded that stress and lack of moisture reduced plant relative growth rate. The amount of net photosynthesis and aging leaves reduced over time and this reduction was intensified in difficult environmental conditions, especially drought. Robat was the best of three cultivars in growth indices. Moreover, the positive and significant correlation between grain yield and total dry weight (0.93**), leaf area index (0.92**), crop growth rate (0.90**), relative growth rate (0.89*) and net assimilation rate (0.92**), have highlighted the importance of growth indices to predict the economic performance of lentils.
In general, it seems in water scarcity conditions, supplementary irrigation at flowering stage could supply necessary moisture for plants and improve their crop yield.

Legumes are important sources of good quality protein in diet of people and they are valuable as animals feeding. The seed of chickpea plant (Cicer arietinum L.) contains essential protein sources, which plays a significant role in the human diet. Among legumes the resistance of chickpea to dehydration conditions causes a higher productivity. Chickpea has a moderate tolerance to drought conditions, but dehydration reduces its yield significantly. This Characteristics of dehydration tolerance are especially important in plant breeding.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate different characteristics affecting the yield of Chickpea and identify the traits that are the most effective methods on yield. Recognizing these traits in breeding programs is useful to select traits can affect the yield.
Understanding the concept of the yield and yield components performance in chickpea breeding programs will be very essential. Cluster analysis, factor analysis, and estimate of heritability were achieved to evaluate the yield performances of chickpea in the present study. A randomized completed block design with four replications was set to investigate thirteen chickpea germplasm at the Research Station of the Agricultural Research Center and Natural Resource at the Khoramabad, ChingaiSarab during 2013-14. These genotypes were included eleven cultivars and two available cultivars (Azad and Local check). Statistical procedures were applied to analyses of data for quantitative traits. Broad sense heritability (h2) was calculated, following Burton. The expected Genetic Advance (GA), with 1% selection intensity (K), was also calculated using the following formula: Gs = K .Ãp . h2
Where Gs is Genetic Advance, Ãp is phenotypic standard deviation of mean performance of population, K (2.06) is the constant standardized selection-differential at 5% and h2 is broad sense heritability.
h2 B = Vg/Vp
Where Vg genetic variance = (variance between-accessions - variance within-accessions)/n, Vp
phenotypic variance = [(variance between-accessions – variance within-accessions)/n] variance within-accessions, n = number of replications.
Genetic advance (GA) = K × (Vp) 0.5 × h2 B
Where K = selection intensity at 5% (2.06), Vp = phenotypic variance, h2 B = heritability (broad sense).
Phenotypic coefficient of variability (PCV) = Phenotypic variance (Vp) /Mean value of the trait× 100
Genotypic coefficient of variability (GCV) = Genotypic variance (Vg) / Mean value of the trait× 100
The study of morphological traits among genotypes significant difference was observed in the 1 or 5 percent, which indicates a high genetic variation among studied genotypes. Analysis of variance indicated that the height of plant that measured from the first pod and the number of hollow pods had the highest variance. Nineteen agronomic traits have been classified into four groups which expressed 78/72% diversity of the total variation according to the principle components analysis Each of the first, second, third and fourth components were able to allocate 39.6%, 18.1%, 13.21% and 8.33% respectively. On the other hand cluster analysis using Euclidean distance capable of ranking these genotypes into two groups based on plant characteristics and showing that local cultivars possess similar genetic materials as advanced cultivars. The majority of the traits had high heritability and observed low differentiation between phenotypic coefficient variables and genotypic coefficient variables which demonstrated that the plant diversity was due to genetic make-up rather than environmental factor. Genotype × environment interactions are important sources of variation in crops and the term stability is sometimes used to characterize a genotype, shows a relatively constant yield, independent of changing environmental conditions. The quantitative traits genotypes X98TH75K1-83, LOCALCHECK, AZAD, FLIP98-55C, SAR79J15K3-86, SAR79J710K2-85, SAR79J610K1-86 and SAR79J38K8-85 the cluster analysis were the first group in terms of high yield, according being to the high levels of yield and indigenous masses LOCALCHECK in the group can be concluded that most of these genotypes show adaptation with the environment that has been dry conditions.
Identification of the yield relationship and traits is an appropriate guide for reformers in the future breeding programs in selecting the best traits. According to the genetic diversity of Present germplasm, they can be used to improve varieties and can also be used to develop genotypes hybridization of these varieties. In the future, it can be found through screening plants that have the greatest resistance as a heritability parents or hybridization of production lines resistant to drought or dry use. It is should be mentioned that the old chickpea landraces and adaptability to environmental conditions with good genes are the genes that can be used in breeding programs.

In dry areas, water is the limiting factor in improving agricultural production. Saving the annual precipitation in the soil is very effective in dryland farming. The amount of rainfall that infiltrates the soil depends on the amount of soil permeability and runoff. The surface remains will be able to better permeable prevent runoff and raindrops and reduce erosion. In addition, evaporation can be reduced about 40 to 70 percent and this water is available for plants. Moreover, mulch keeps sufficient moisture to increase the microbial activity, rise mobility and better food for plant growth. Therefore, various tools and techniques should be used in rain-fed conditions to reduce risk of water losing and create sustainable performance. In this work, some types of mulch and their impact on soil moisture and yield of chickpea are evaluated in dryland conditions.
This experiment was carried out on chickpea (var. ILC481) as a split plot in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications at the research farm of Campus of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran during 2011-2012. The main plot treatments were moisture retention, including control without mulch, corn, straw mulch (1 kg/m2) wheat straw mulch (1 kg/m2), farmyard manure mulch (3 kg/m2), soil, mulch (using the sweep to cut pipes capillary) and supplemental irrigation at podding stage (to compare with the ideal condition). The sub plots were sowing depth 4, 8 and 12 cm. The annual rainfall was 305.5 mm during the studied year and soil texture was clay. Each plot consists of 6 planting lines with length of 3 meters. Sowing date was done on 16 October 2011. Plant density was 40 plants per square meter with 25 cm between row spacing and 10 cm in the rows. In this work, measured traits were included soil moisture at different growth stages (vegetative stage, flowering, pod and grain filling) at depths of 0-30 and 30-60 cm, grain yield and biomass. In order to estimate soil moisture content, sampling was conducted by auger. Data were analyzed using the SAS and MSTATC softwares and the means were compared using the Duncan test at the 5% level.
Results showed that there are significant differences at podding stage (depth 0-30 cm) between different types of mulch and between sowing depth (30-60 cm), different mulching types and also the interaction between mulch and sowing depth. Soil moisture (depth of 30-60 cm) was significant for all treatments (mulching and sowing depths) and for different growth stages, including vegetative growth, flowering, podding and maturity stages. The mulches which could preserve the highest percent of soil moisture were farmyard manure mulch, wheat straw mulch, soil mulch and corn straw mulch, respectively. The lowest soil moisture content (average depths of 0-30 and 30-60 cm) was obtained under no mulch condition and at reproductive phase, flowering, podding and grain filling (8.0, 10.6, 14.1 and 17.4 percent, respectively) and the maximum soil moisture content for farmyard manure mulch were 12.2, 15.1, 17.3 and 19.3 percent, respectively. Sowing depth of 12 cm decreased the more moisture from depth 30-60 cm. Grain yield increased under wheat straw mulch (30%), manure mulch (18%), corn straw mulch (16%), and soil mulch (12%) compared to the control (non-mulching), respectively. Grain yield reduced under wheat straw mulch (31%), manure mulch (37%), corn straw mulch (38%) and soil mulch (40%) compared to supplemental irrigation, respectively.
The results revealed that under mulch treatments the soil moisture trends were slower compared to treatments without mulch. Farmyard manure mulch indicated the highest ability to retain moisture and after that wheat straw and corn stubble mulch demonstrated the highest ability to retain the moisture. Thus, it seems that in areas that there is the possibility of supplementary irrigation, use of these treatments will provide more moisture for plants. Furthermore, a deeper planting seed (12 cm) causes moisture depletion from greater depths. According to the results, it seems that the use of deeper sowing depth and mulching can be an appropriate technique for dryland condition.

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medic) is a member of the leguminosae (Fabaceae) family and an important pulse crop grown in Iran. Growth of lentil plant is highly sensitive to environmental conditions, especially solar radiation, high temperature and water availability. One of the important reasons for unstable lentil yield is the indeterminate growth habit of lentil plants. Extensive vegetative growth, lodging, pod abortion due to limited light interception in the lower part of the canopy, excessive flower and pod shedding, and competition between pods and vegetative parts for photosynthates are all the consequences of indeterminacy and late maturity. Radiation (sunlight) is one the limiting factors in mixed and agroforestry cultivation systems. Crop yield is a function of radiation intercepted over the growing season, the efficiency of converting the intercepted radiation to biomass and the partitioning efficiency of biomass to seed yield. Therefore, in agroforestry production systems, maximizing the limited solar radiation with improved crop management practices such as seed inoculation with plant growth promoting rizobacteria (PGPR) could lead to yield improvement. Intensive use of chemical fertilizers has produced environmental problems and increased the production costs. The recent economic crisis and environmental problems has raised interest in environmental friendly sustainable agricultural practices, which can reduce input costs. N2-fixing may be important for plant nutrition by increasing nitrogen uptake by the plants, and playing a significant role as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria in the bio-fertilization of crops. Plant growth-promoting rhizohacteria are able exit a beneficial upon plant growth. Nitrogen fixation and P. solubilization production of antibiotic and increased root dry weight are the principal mechanism for the PGPR. A number of different bacteria promote plant growth, including Azospirillum sp., Azospirillum species are plant growth-promotive bacteria whose beneficial effects have been postulated to be partially due to production of phytohormons, including gibberellins.
An experimental field to study the effect of light intensity on lentil cultivars was conducted using a factorial arrangement based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at Agricultural Research Station of Ilam University during the 2012-2013 growing season. Studied factors included shading (control (without shading), 25, 50, 75 and 100% by shading) and bio-priming (control and inoculation with Azospirillum). Lentil Seeds (Lens culinaris Medik.) cultivar ILL4400 were sown on 21 February, 2013. 5 rows with 25 cm width and 2 m long designed in a 2×1.3 m plots and seeds planted with 2 cm intervals in North to South direction. Special net cloth with exact thickness was used for shading. The nets were cut and attached on 2×2 m frames according to the plot size and placed 1 m height on plots. During the growth season, hand weeding was done in necessary times, too. Samplings were included plant height, number of branches per plant, number of flowers per plant, leaf dry weight, shoot dry weight, active node in the root, total nodes in root and grain yield. For analysis of variance SAS software version 9.1 was used and graphs charted with excel.
Interaction effects between shading ×bio-priming had the significant effect on studying traits. Increasing the shading and application of Azospirillum increased plant height and total nodes in the root, so that the highest plant height (44 cm) and total nodes in the root (11.3 nodes) were obtained from 100% shading and application of Azospirillum. In this study, the number of leaves per plant, the number of branches per plant, total of flowers per plant, leaf dry weight, shoot dry weight, active node in root and grain yield decreased with increasing shading × check treatment so that the highest number of leaf per plant (91 leaves), number of branch per plant (15.6 branches), total flower per plant (65 flowers), leaf dry weight (1.6 g), shoot dry weight (2.2 g), active node in root (16.6 nodes) and grain yield (2994 kg/ha).
This study indicated that Azospirillum had a positive effect on lentil and morphologic traits and grain yield revealed a better status in the presence of Azospirillum. In fact, Azospirillum could alleviate the partial of grain yield in presence of shading. In general, using bio-fertilizers and manage integrated nourishment quantitatively and qualitatively is one of the efficient ways to improve plant production. Moreover, the environment would have a better condition if chemical fertilizer consumption reduces. Recent studies demonstrated that using bio- fertilizers not only improve the soil physiological structure but also increase organic matters content and nitrogen available to coexistent plant. Undoubtedly, before massive production and widely application of such products, it is necessary to implement and replicate this experiment in different regions.

Iron (Fe) has a crucial biological role in human and plant growth. This micronutrient is a major player in chloroplast photosynthesis and enzymes. Although some enzymes, such as Fe-dependent superoxide dismutase, use molecular Fe as a cofactor directly, most proteins use Fe-containing factors. Various studies were carried out to understand the effect of nanoparticles on the growth of plants. Nano-particles have high reactivity because of the more specific surface area, more density of reactive areas, or increased reactivity of these areas on the particle surfaces. Sheykhbaglou et al. (2012) showed that application of nano-iron oxide particles increased soybean growth and yield than micro iron particles. Iron deficiency can be corrected by foliar application of iron more efficiently than the soil application of iron sources. To achieve maximum nutrient absorption via foliar applications, a fine mist application with spreading and wetting agents is desired. These agents provide quick wetting of plant tissue and more uniform coverage and as a result more absorption of solutions. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of foliar application of nano and micro iron oxide particles with additive material on some physiological traits of green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).
This study was arranged as factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications to investigate the effects of Fe nano particles (NP) and micro particles (MP) foliar application with additive material on some physiological traits of green bean at the Faculty of Agriculture, Shahrood University of Technology in 2012. Geographically, the site is located in Bastam (36° 29’E, 55° 57’N, 1366 m a.s.l.). The climate of this region is semi-arid. The first factor was foliar application of Fe in five levels (0, 0.25, and 0.5 g L−1; in two forms: NP and MP) and the second factor was additive materials in three levels (0, D.G ADJUVANT and RCP-5). The foliar application was performed 55 days after sowing in the beginning of flowering stage. At harvest, the plant characteristics namely leaf area index, height, pod and leaf iron, chlorophyll, carotenoid and protein were also registered. Statistical analyses of data were performed with statistical software MSTAT-C. Significant differences between means refer to the probability level of 0.05 by LSD test.
Results showed that leaf area index was not affected by treatments. The highest Fe level in leaves (311 mg kg-1) and in pods (51.47 mg kg-1) was obtained by application of 0.25 g L-1 Fe MP D.G ADJUVANT (figures 2 and 3). Bybordi & Mamedov (2010) reported that with spraying of Fe the highest amount of Fe accumulation was obtained in canola leaf. RCP-5.5 g L-1 Fe NP treatment showed the highest pod protein content. Monsef Afshar et al., (2012) represented that foliar application of Fe increased protein percentage of leaf compared to the other treatments. Micro-Nutrients such as Fe and zinc participate in the structure of proteins and also in nitrogen metabolism and thereby may also cause to increase the protein amount. Uhlig & Wissemeier (2000) recorded an increased cuticular penetration of calcium containing surfactants. Leaf and stem tissues can inhibit initial nutrient absorption by means of waxy substances in the cuticle. Thus, it seems that D.G ADJUVANT and RCP-5 have improved the effects of Fe on plant characteristics through increasing absorption of iron especially in low concentrations. Similar to our results Singh et al., (1990) reported that application of iron sulphate and iron pyrite decreased chlorosis and increased chlorophyll and carotenoid contents of groundnut leaves significantly.
Based on the results of the present study, using additive materials such as D.G ADJUVANT and RCP-5 can enhance the effects of iron as nano and micro particles on chlorophyll contents and pod protein of green bean through providing quick wetting of plant tissue and more uniform coverage with increased spray retention by reducing the surface tension of the spray droplets.