پژوهشنامه نقد ادبی و بلاغت
سال پنجم شماره 1 (پیاپی 9، بهار و تابستان 1395)

Sociological approach is one of the most efficient critical approaches of literary works, particularly novels. The relation existing between the novel's structure and content to the changes of the society and living conditions and the artistic reflection and representation of society in fantastic world of a literary work is studied in this approach. Based on the principles of sociological approach of criticism, one of the most prominent works of Palestinian well-known author, Jabra Ibrahim Jabra has been studied in present research to answer to this main question if the sociological approach is applicable to the novel "Hunters in a narrow street"? The research hypothesis is that Jabra tries to reflect the social situation of his period in the form of a literary work. A hunter in a narrow street was written after author’s staying in Bagdad following the occupation of Palestine by Zionists in 1948. Evoking bitter memories of his homeland’s occupation, Jabra, in this novel, points to the tragic realities of Iraq and the pathetic social situation of Bagdad’s residents. The result of present research, conducted through an analytical-descriptive method, shows that Jabra reflects the social situation in a specific period creating characters from different classes of society.

Poetry and myth are intertwined and most of the poets often live in the mythological spaces for moments. Myths help poetry being prosperous and having multi-layered meaning through its symbolic expression. With the development and progress of science, the influence of myths in human societies decreased; however they have not generally lost their impact, especially in literature. So we are to find some examples of myths in the works of Ali Mousavi Garmaroudi to know what kind of myths he has used in his poems and which of them have been more confirmed by him? The studies show that Garmaroudi has used different kinds of religious and national myths in his works. He focuses on Islamic mythological figures, and among them paying attention to the characters such as prophet Mohammad (PBUH), Imam Ali (AS) and Imam Mahdi (AS) is the main theme of his poetry. Pre-Islamic mythologies and Iranian national myths stand, with a slight gap, on the second and third positions, respectively. He has even used national myths to explain ritual and religious concepts. He has sometimes recounted the past mythologies to highlight modern concepts.

Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon in Russian and also the world literature with works on which the global ideas shine in. Nobody is able, just like Pushkin, to demonstrate a man of other nations and to speak on behalf of him so authentically. His ability in describing Iranian culture and also Iranian genius poet, Saadi, was so that Prince Shalikov, the publisher of “Damskii zhurnal”, called him “The Young Saadi” in 1824, after publishing “The Fountain of Bakhchisaray” poem with a frontispiece of Saadi's words, because for the first time in Russian literature, Pushkin showed, through his fascinating poems, the way one should describe the Iranian genius poet Saadi. Pushkin and Saadi are being compared with each other, in present essay, and the valuable and key role of Saadi’s words in Pushkin’s expressing his ideas in his poem “The Fountain of Bakhchisaray” and some of his other works are studied. Some of Saadi’s ideas like those in frontispiece to “The Fountain of Bakhchisaray” are adopted from the first chapter of his masterpiece Boostan, and have been repeated frequently in many of Pushkin’s works and correspondences, in addition to his novel “Eugene Onegin”, and have been used by Russians as proverbs. These ideas, in Pushkin's works, recalled the memory of his Decaabrist friends and also expressed a sense of the poet's nostalgia as a result of separation or losing them.

In present research, the tragic story of "Rostam and Sohrab" is evaluated on the basis of Claude Bremond's theory of narratology. The model of Bremond is based on a dual approach upon which the fate of hero not only leads to his victory but sometimes to his failure. According to Bremond, this tragedy is formed by a main sequence and several sub-sequences that has creates the body of the story while different types of sequences such as chain, concrete and connective sequences have been used. Each sequence, according to his theory, includes three functions of possibility, process, and consequence that all consistent to and aligned with the story. "Sohrab in Touran", "Sohrab in Iran" and "Sohrab who is killed by Rostam" can be corresponded to possibility, process, and consequence functions, respectively. In terms of character, this story is a good example of active heroes who turn into passive ones and vice versa. Present research demonstrates Ferdowsi's art in narrative and storytelling. It shows that he had paid attention to all narrative elements such as setting the sequences, situations, actions and, above all, Bremond’s double approach in giving characters the freedom of goal selection.

“Woman” is the most important focal character in the works of Mostafa Mastur and fundamental differences are obvious between this kind of woman and women in other contemporary realist stories or novels, because she manifests the complete character of "Ideal Woman" from one hand, and inherits the image and has been presented of him during several centuries of Iranian lyric literature from the other hand, a prominent, aware, introspective, faithful, loyal, angelic, inspirational, artist and unattainable woman who is more virtue to be possessed by a man. So love, in such stories, is totally sacred and unearthly. It doesnt end, or the lover avoids joining. Even prostitutes, in such stories are innocent with respectable personalities. Assuming that the approach of these stories to the subject of "woman" and "love", with such a frequency, is exclusive in modern stories and has changed to the stylistic feature of their authors with a link to old Persian mystical-lyric literature, the present essay is to study and analyze the character of woman and her special, sacred and heavenly role and her subsequent result, pure spiritual love in Mostafa Mastur's works through an analytic- descriptive method.

The implication of transposition in the structure of positive and negative sentences has been studied from the point of Abd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī's view in present essay. Transposition is a rhetorical subject being discussed in generative-transformative grammar. Jurjānī believed that words set in order in a sentence on the basis of their meanings, and emphasized that if the order of words in a sentence were not meaning-based, transposition, then, would have had no semantic value. He proves sagaciously the syntactic, rhetoric and semantic functions of transposition and tries, providing various examples, to explain his own viewpoints about transposition and to pay attention to the issue of meaning in the sentence construction. The results of present research, has been conducted through a descriptive-analytic method, show that many of Jurjānī’s opinions and views are closely related to modern linguistic theories. He was also concerned with word structure, principles of generative -transformative grammar, the unity of word and meaning (formalistic discourse), linguistic and non-linguistic contexts and believed that all the above-mentioned elements should be considered in a text understanding procedure

Nizami Ganjavi (1141 to 1209) and Bīdel Dehlavī (1642–1720) are two prominent poets known for their innovations. There are many ambiguous elements in the level of their languages, from which the ambiguous compositions are the most important. Ambiguous compositions are compound words formed when two or three morphemes are put together and act on the horizontal axis of language as a meaning unit. Most researchers believe in special ambiguous compositions as a monopoly of Hindi poets. Nizami's special compositions are being compared and analyzed with those of Bīdel's in present essay. To analyze the structure and to express the meaning of ambiguous components, they are studied according to their "core meaning" and "semantic component". The essay is to show the ambiguous compositions in two different literary periods, and to demystify them. The result indicates that most of ambiguous compositions are in deep structure of a full sentence with syntactic and semantic relations, and that creating the special ambiguous compositions is not limited to Bīdel and other poets of Hindi style.

Utopian literature, in terms of content, includes the dream of a world with better and ideal conditions or an image of favorable and yet abstract (nowhere) world. Based on a single main motivation, nostalgia and the desire to return to eternal origin and due to the intellectual paradigms form them, this genre has formed certain structures. From the perspective of realizing the origin and having a qualitative analysis of a utopian genre, nostalgia and the fear of deportation to the mundane (slip to the level of consciousness) and proposing an archetypal image of the ideal city and the earthly paradise are the things can be considered as the main causes form the genre. This city has an archetypal structure in mythological narratives (as Heavenly Paradise), fantasy structure in religious and popular narratives, allegorical structure in didactic literature and mysterious structure in mystical literature. Reviewing and paradigm-based classifying this literary genre, its different types in three areas of Mythical Utopia, Philosophical Utopia and Narrative-Didactic Utopia will be studied in present paper, beside the manifestation of these paradigms in Iranian culture and Persian classic literature.

Using symbols is one of the most complicated methods of thinking and expression of meanings. It plays an important role in creating a literary work and expressing the poet's inexpressible ideas. Such an approach is rooted in the existing socio-political situations, the poet's personal experiences and his intellectual and philosophical tendencies. Hawari (1938) is a contemporary Palestinian poet whose poetry was born through Palestinian resistance in the occupied territories and is directly linked with its current situation. Concerning about suffocating environment and ruling repression, he has used symbols to express the suffering of Palestinian people and to express his ideas of resistance. Symbolic elements in his three divans:"Meraya Alyasmin" (1998), "Maqalah Alghym Alshajar" (2000) and "Latakasar Alnay" (2006) are studied in present research through an inductive – analytic method. The symbols are classified in 8 categories and their implied meanings and corresponding themes are documented in tables. The results show that the symbols of the poet often express two general concepts: a) occupation of his country and its requirements; and, b) standing and resistance with all facilities.

Irony makes the word meaning multifaceted and contradictory meanings being extended in text. Explaining the theoretical framework of Irony, it has been tried in present research to make the ironic components clear, to extract the common features between irony and other semantic industries of Persian language, and to analyze the tricks and efficient forms of irony in Hafiz's poetry. The research has been conducted through a qualitative descriptive – analytic method using library documentations and data. Considering the value of irony in intellectual development of society and its enlightening by expression of rascality, the research aims to explain Hafiz's methods in using irony. The achievements, evaluated by existing evidences, indicate that irony is not compliance with some of the literary industries in Persian literature but has common aspects. These industries create complexity in a work and make it more artistic through an ironic network. Sarcasm has conformity with verbal irony. All types of irony, except romantic irony, are compatible with Hafiz's poetry. The religious and political ideas of different classes of society are the most important issues in his poetry that are compliance with irony.

Mystical texts are the most important texts have been set to convey epistemic teachings and to influence the audiences concerned with awareness and esoteric training. Therefore it seems that specific techniques have been used in rhetoric to fulfill this objective. According to the style of speech in mystical texts, they can be considered as rhetoricals. Reviewing the concept of rhetoric and its history, in present essay, some of rhetorical techniques such as allegory and metaphor are going to be discussed. So Abd al-Qāhir -Jurjānī's votes on eloquence and rhetorical art and its relation to rhetoric and its tools have being paid attention. Due to this the mystical texts have been studied as rhetorical texts because the method of discussion and reasoning in such texts is based on rhetoric principles with no logical and mathematical reasoning. The aim of these texts is to make teachings and mystical contents believable and to satisfy the audience using techniques such as allegory and metaphor. Mystical texts, therefor, can be considered as rhetoricals.