نشریه آب و توسعه پایدار
پیاپی 2 (بهار و تابستان 1393)

In today’s world the concept of “city” without effective landscape is out of imagination. Being focal points for human life and activities, cities have to consider the structure and functions which are influenced by natural systems. In this regard, landscapes are inevitable parts of cities with an essential metabolic role. Unlike most countries which don’t have to deal with water shortage as a major issue, climatic characteristics of Iran have restricted the water consumption in this country. As a result improving green landscapes faces severe obstacle and the main measure to combat it is pressurized irrigation systems. In the other words the actions are concentrated on irrigation management, while there are other measures that can be considered as well. Xeriscape is one of those measures in which non-vegetation or very low water demand are used in landscapes. This approach is very common in many developed countries like USA. Promoting this approach in Iran needs a few basic steps as well as the study of public opinion. This paper aims to introduce Xeriscape by presenting some field surveys in parks and city hall of Karaj; experts and people’s view points were collected using a questionnaire. The results showed neither people nor authorities are not still aware of water deficit problem. The people who participated in this study agree with this kind of landscape alongside highways. But for parks they prefer a combination of Xeriscape with green landscapes.

Ecosystems supply and distribute a wide range of services which human communities depend on all around the world. They seem to be among the most important elements of our economic welfare and personal well-being. Today, the prerequisite of any effort aimed at preventing the dire consequences of ecosystem mismanagement is implementing a sound ecosystem management. A performance evaluation of the institutions concerned with environmental protection throughout the world, including Iranian institutions, and in recent decades revealed that currently most efforts and policies depend on guidelines and imperatives rather than approaches which benefit from economic instruments. Working alongside laws and regulations, economic instruments can play a decisive role in the environmental protection. Currently, there are a host of such instruments available but all ecosystems do not necessarily respond to a given instrument in the same way. The "payment for ecosystem services"(PES) is one of such economic instruments which has been widely used throughout the world in recent years and compared to other natural resource management instruments, it has been providing positive results. The participation of corporate stakeholders and local communities are among the advantages of this method which makes it both easy to implement and highly effective.

The increasing number of hazards related to water shortage in different parts of the world and the probability of socio-economic crisis, social stresses and even war occurrence as water shortage impacts; shows that water supply challenges will be more important and widespread than energy supply challenges in future decades. During the time, with population growth, resource demand increase and pressure on them, degree and scale of water hazards has changed. These quantitative and qualitative changes in water body has made water supply and distribution to encounter with increasing challenges. In addition to above reasons, phenomenon like climate change, drought, earthquake, flood and … have exacerbated this matter and have impose water risks on societies. Overcoming such challenges in different scales (local, regional and national) would not be possible unless changing our thoughts about water resources and shifting from crisis management to risk management. It is evident that knowing risk management basic concepts accurately will help us to attain better perception around this subject and also to find appropriate solutions. In this paper, basic concepts in this scope has been described (e.g. hazard, risk, vulnerability and …) with an immense depiction of water resource management from the perspective of risk and uncertainty; and also a framework for risk management has been provided.

Geosmin and MIB are the common factors causing odor in the water. Water treatment plants usually employ the conventional processes such as aeration, coagulation, flocculation, chlorination or ozonation and adsorption as preventive measures to reduce water odor. But each of these processes alone cannot completely remove the smell. The smell of fish, grass and mud greatly depends on the excessive growth of algae in warm seasons. Geosmin is the major cause of water odor in Mashhad water treatment Plant No. 1, which is usually formed when rural, urban and industrial wastewater as well as agricultural effluents, fertilizers and nutrients enter Kardeh Dam and cause excessive growth of algae in hot seasons. As the only existing hybrid system, the present research is financially justifiable in addition to being technically feasible and considering the operational conditions of Mashhad Water Treatment Plant No.1, is the only executable plan. This hybrid water treatment plant employs an ultrasonic system and deep aeration to remove algae. In the deep aeration process using super aerators, pollutants are eliminated in a two-phase air and water process with ascending air currents. Clarifying and final purification is hen carried out with the help of the absorption method and combined charcoal and activated carbon filters installed at the spillway and pulsator outlets. This is the first time the process is proposed and it is able to provide up to 95% reduction in geosmin related pollutions.

Removal of typical contaminants like aromatic amines (e.g. 1-naphthalen amine, diphenyl amine, aniline, 2 and 6-dimethyl pyridine) from water during one-stage process is a method to purify water wherein organic contaminants get extracted from water by bentonite. In this study the effects of pH, stirring time, stirring speed, bentonite mass and bentonite size (mesh) were investigated. Also, the experimental isotherm data were examined using Temkin, Freundlich, Langmuir and Debian- Radushkevich isotherm equations. Adsorption of aromatic amines on bentonite was better correlated by Temkin adsorption isotherm. 2 and 6-diphenyl amine, aniline, diphenyl amine and 1- naphthalen amine were extracted by 12/93%, 23/91%, 45/81% and 60/42%, respectively. Study of kinetic adsorption data showed that the adsorption reaction of these compounds from aqueous mediums onto bentonite was best fitted on the first order virtual equation. The results showed that this technique is an effective and simple process to extract common aromatic amines from water. The proposed technology makes the use of bentonite possible as an adsorbent for water treatment in industrial scale.

Events and accidents in drinking water distribution networks are among cases that lose water and increase the rate of non revenue water. Network events in addition to wasting water can cause destruction, traffic jam, pressure reduction, pollution and enormous reconstruction costs.The main focus of this study is to statistically evaluate these incidents and to develop an analytical method to predict the distribution of evens in five rural sectors of Ghaen city (sector Zohan, Zirkooh, Nimblook, Sadeh and Markazi). Data showed that Markazi and Zirkooh sectors during a five-year period (2008-2012) had the highest and lowest number of events for branches with 603 and 170 events, respectively. Also for this period, Markazi and Nimblook had the highest and lowest events in the networks with 1209 and 547 events, respectively. The analysis of events in the five areas based on models such as simple growth model showed that Zirkooh and Markazi sectores will be having the highest and lowest number of events within of the next 5 years with 2073 and 618 events, respectively.

The current study was carried out with the aim of evaluating the effects of pressurized and furrow irrigation methods on the distribution of salinity and moisture in the soil profile. The experimental study design was a split plot layout with three irrigation method including furrow, surface drip (SD) and subsurface drip irrigation (SSD) using two water qualities, municipal effluent (0.509 dS/m salinity) and fresh water (1.52 dS/m salinity) which was carried out in a corn field located in Corbal plain, Iran. Soil sampling was conducted in two sessions, prior to irrigation and after harvesting, at three depths of 0-20, 20-40, 40-60 cm and 15 points around areas where water seeped. Variance analysis of salinity showed a significant difference (p

One of the methods of understanding and evaluating the irrigation management is to measure soil moisture, plant indices and vegetation temperature. The present study aims to introduce a traditional pattern of irrigation management (continuous water rotation in an irrigation zone) in the pistachio gardens of Ardakan, and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses. A TDR device was used in a one-month period in order to study the daily changes of the soil moisture. To do this, soil moisture was measured on a daily basis in four different depths in 25 points of the studied land. Moreover, Landsat satellite images were used to determine the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and vegetation coverage temperature, and the results were compared to those of the neighboring pistachio gardens. The results showed that the average soil moisture of the studied land in 25 points were approximately the same in all days and is in a range of 15 to 20 volumetric percent (with the average of 17.6 percent and the standard deviation of 3.6 percent). This pattern caused a favorable microclimatic condition and proportional reduction in drought effects in pistachio gardens which is beneficial to the plants. Furthermore, the NDVI and vegetation temperature indices showed a better condition in the studied Pistachio garden in comparison with the neighboring gardens which is a result of management pattern. Promoting the aforementioned method of irrigation, (continuous water rotation in an irrigation zone and irrigation of scattered and distinct parts) – and applying it in other pistachio gardens –where irrigation starts in one part and goes through adjacent parts in a row to irrigate all the land_ is one of the achievements of this study.

Land-use change affects a number natural processes such as soil erosion, sedimentation, flooding and destruction of soil physical and chemical properties. This change of ecosystem causes the degradation of soil quality which eventually leads to a severe decrease in soil fertility. Therefore, various aspects of land-use change should be taken into account in national major decision makings. This study makes use of Artificial Neural Network, Multilayer Perception (ANN-MLP) and land-use planning model (Dr. Makhdoom’s method) to assess the impacts of land-use change on runoff. The study site was Yalfan catchment, Hamedan province, Iran. According to the results over the statistical period of 1375 to 1389, the Artificial Neural Network model’s (ANN) simulation resulted in the Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency of 0.74 and root-mean-square error index of 0.01 which was indicative of an acceptable accuracy for the simulation of the daily runoff of Yalfan catchment. Furthermore, the hydrograph peak flow was decreased by 45% after the optimum land-use was implemented. This means a decrease of possible flood damages. It is concluded that the ANN model can be introduced as an appropriate model for runoff simulation in Yalfan and assessing the impacts of land-use change scenarios on runoff.

In recent years, Dousti Dam has been one of the most important Mashhad’s sources of drinking water. In this way, 500 million cubic meters of the outflow of the dam enter into the Mashhad watershed. With the arrival of this volume of water, the drinking water wells in the city were turned off. On the other hand, the development of some urban infrastructures such as the sewer collecting network did not construct along with other urban developments. As a consequence, the water entering the aquifer has caused the localized water level increasing, especially in the central areas of the city, which imposes some problems for other urban development. In the present study, more than 111 piezometric wells were selected to analyze the groundwater level fluctuations in the period between December 2013 to August 2014 and then groundwater level contours were generated in order to study the spatial and temporal changes in groundwater levels in the study area. The results showed that groundwater levels increase, locally, in some areas of the city. The results of these investigations were discussed during some meetings with the contribution of experts from all relevant government agencies, university professors and experts, which yielded important decisions for how to deal with this phenomenon. In order to reduce the risks of the groundwater level increasing, the drinking water wells were turned on during the winter of 1392 and spring of 1393. Therefore, the groundwater levels were controlled. Some notifications were made by considering the decisions of the aforementioned meetings, so fortunately any failures of buildings and facilities caused by the phenomenon were not reported. The results obtained from field data as well as the opportunities, challenges and management conditions are studied in the following sections.

Water resources are of vital human resources and of the three main elements of ecosystem. Almost half of the agricultural products of the world are being produced in irrigation schemes. In today's world, the population is considerably increasing and consequently severe shortage of food threatens about two-third of the world's population. Moreover, water resources are facing more serious crisis and shortage in comparison with other vital resources. Accordingly, these resources must be skillfully managed and carefully controlled both at current time and in the future. Development and improvement in utilization of water and soil resources and optimization of management of schemas/irrigation and drainage schemes are tied to constructive cooperation and interaction among the development practitioners, specifically the main agents (organizations related to the Department of Energy, Ministry of Agriculture, etc.). Among the new steps taken concerning water are the recognition of how water resources are developed, realization of modern management transformations in irrigation and a special emphasis on organizations, public participation in the environment and appropriate governmental goals regarding utilization and development of water resources. The most efficient management developments depend on local (natural and humanistic) conditions. Certainly, documentation of observations and experience and also knowledge management play a highly significant role in perception of the local conditions and recognition of the best solutions. Transformation in the irrigation management is a gradual process including the training of farmers, stepwise task assignment to them, pricing of water to procure enough funds for utilization and maintenance of the schemes, and eventually full executive and financial autonomy of the irrigation scheme.

Population growth can greatly impact on greenhouse gas emission pattern in the future. Considering the importance of population growth in climate change studies, the present research concentrates on the population growth of the Middle East in the late 21th century based on the IIASA population scenarios. Under the projections of A1-B1 scenario, the world’s population will grow up to 8.7 billion and according to A2 scenario it will be almost doubled by 2050. The results indicate that under both of these scenarios, which are considered among principle climate change scenarios, the population of the Middle-East would increase from 312 million in 1995 to 809 million and 2 billion, respectively by 2100. According to population rates assumed in these scenarios, the domestic water demand of Taleghan reservoir was estimated for the period of 2055 and 2100. The results indicated that under these two scenarios, by 2055 (2040-2069) the mean of monthly domestic water demand of the reservoir will be respectively increased by 80 and 161%. Furthermore, the analysis of the data for 2006-2011 revealed that during all these years as well as all their dry months (July – November), the total average of the domestic and agricultural water use rate has been greater than the average reservoir inflow rate, resulting in the decrease of the storage volume of the reservoir in these periods. Therefore, considering the severity of water shortage in this period, a reevaluation of the current reservoir management methods and formulation of a change adaptation plan seems to be essential.

Action Without a framework, not justified and likely will face a failure or a problem. Due to the multiplicity of factors, extent and complexity of "water resource management context" and the long-term effectiveness of the measures in this context, a definitive explanation seems necessary. This paper proposed a framework, which is based on work carried out under the title "The strategic management of water resources in the southern province" has been prepared, it is reported. In this framework to transform "ideal vision" or the understanding of the overall solution, the utility plans "road map" is used. Framework's steps are: «The status quo», «Group owners discussion», «Developing a shared vision», «Explanation of macro policies», «Road map», «Defining operational policies» and at last «Operational planning». Each steps Details are presented. Before editing action plans, operational policies consistency with the four criteria of consensus, fairness, trustworthiness and reversible are controlled.