نشریه دانش آب و خاک
سال بیست و ششم شماره 3 (پاییز 1395)

In recent years, the new methods for assessment of groundwater resources quality have been developed extensively. In this research, the application of Entropy Theory to evaluate groundwater quality for drinking purposes is shown. In rural regions, the groundwater resources are the main source of drinking water. Also, the source of drinking water in Sarab plain is groundwater resources. The Entropy method was used, in order to prevent the individual judgments on determination weight of the parameters used in Water Quality Index Method. In this study, for evaluating Sarab Plain groundwater quality for drinking purposes through entropy weighted method, 12 groundwater parameters affecting the quality of drinking water, including bicarbonate, sulphate, chloride, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, lithium, fluoride, nitrate, sillies and electrical conductivity, were used. Results showed that chloride had the highest impact on water quality of Sarab plain aquifers. Potassium, sodium and nitrate are the most unstable parameters among the studied parameters. The results showed 53 and 18 percent of groundwater samples were classified in group one and two respectively.

Land suitability studies, explore the physical, social and economic aspects of land and make the sustainable and stable use of these lands possible. The purpose of this study was to determine the qualitative, quantitative, and economic appropriateness of a part of Khoy plain in West Azarbaijan for major crops including wheat, barley, maize and sunflower. The base of Qualitative assessment was adaptation of climate, topography and soil specifications of the land with plant growth requirements for each crop using Sys table with the square root of the parametric method and the base of quantitative assessment was unit yield and potential production and economic analysis of gross profit per unit area. Qualitative evaluation results showed that most of the land units were in the classes of very suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) for wheat and barley but for maize and sunflower the most of land units were in moderately (S2) and critical (S3) suitable classes. The main limiting factors in the region were salinity, alkalinity, lime and pH. Based on the results of quantitative assessment the most of land units for wheat and barley were in very suitable (S1) class and for maize and sunflower were in relatively suitable (S2) class. Comparing qualitative and quantitative classes showed that quantitative classes of the all products were in equal or higher level than qualitative classes of them referring to high level Management and suitable climatic conditions in the study region. Also Economic suitability results showed that in all land units sunflower was more profitable than other products.

Mehraban Plain is located in the East Azarbaijan province of Iran, 60 kilometers from east of Tabriz, where groundwater resources supply its entire drinking and most of agricultural water demands. These resources are highly saline due to the effect of salty geological formations, high evaporation from groundwater resources and recharge of saline water from rivers and high withdrawal from fresh groundwater. As a result, the electrical conductivity of groundwater in the western parts of the plain, especially in the Arbatan village, is reached to about 9800 μmhos cm-1. So, it is tried to use statistical and hydrochemical methods to determine sources of groundwater salinity and the effect of geological formation on the water quality of the study area. In this research 22 water samples were collected from deep and shallow abstraction wells and were chemically analyzed in hydrology lab of the Tabriz University. Hydrochemical conditions of the resources were analyzed by multivariate statistical methods. According to the factor analyzing methods, 84.85 percent of chemical variations are controlled by three groups of factors. For identifying, governing geochemical processes in the aquifer composite diagrams, ions ratios and saturation index of calcite, dolomite and gypsum were evaluated. The results showed that the chemical compositions of groundwater were highly effected by recharge from the rivers, sediments of the aquifer and evaporation from the groundwater. The composite diagrams results showed that the processes such as halite, gypsum and dolomite solution and ion exchange phenomenon affect the groundwater chemical quality.

Hydraulic jump is the most common method for kinetic energy dissipating at downstream of spillways, chutes and gates. Several relations have been proposed to estimate the length of hydraulic jump, but the results of these equations are not general and acceptable due to the uncertainty of the functions. Consequently, it is essential to estimate the hydraulic jump length, accurately. In this paper, hydraulic jump length was estimated for free and submerged hydraulic jumps on horizontal and slopping smooth beds using support vector regression as one of the machine learning methods and the rate of influence of input parameters in each jump was analyzed. Totally, 294 patterns of the observed data were used for training and testing processes of the four kinds of hydraulic jump models. Comparison between support vector regression (SVR), classical and empirical equations and gene expression programming (GEP) method showed the noticeable efficiency of the support vector regression.

Sediment transport and bedforms in alluvial streams, significantly affect the flow resistance. In the present research to discuss the effect of ripple bedform on the flow shear stress, a series of experiments were done and the influences of ripples on flow roughness coefficient were investigated. These experiments were carried out in a laboratory flume with changing discharge, slope and flow depth alternatively to create different hydraulic conditions. In flow surfaces having bedforms, shear stress includes two parts. The first part is the , which is imposed on each particle of the sediment and the second part is the , which is the stress created by bedforms. The results showed that the shear stress and roughness coefficient increased with formation of bedforms. Also, with intensifying the flow parameters the turbulences were grown in the downstream of the bedform crest and the studied factors increased accordingly. In a certain limit of discharge (10 to 14 lit/s) and slope (0 to 0.015), results showed that with increasing flow velocity, the height of ripple increased and the number of them increased too. The most variation area was at the last 70 cm length from the end of the channel. With ripple height increasing, sediment transportation was increased more and there was a 40 percent growth of dimensionless sediment discharge, when the (bedfrom height to the length) increased about 35 percent. Studying the shear stress caused by bedform in relation with bedform height, it was obvious when the ripple height increased about 45 percent, the bedform shear stress increased about 58 percent.

With advances in remote sensing technology, vast efforts have been carried out recently for predicting difficult-to measure soil properties. This study explores the use of information on vegetation cover from satellite images (SAVI) and digital elevation model (DEM) in addition to pedologic attributes to develop pedotransfer functions (PTFs) for estimating three coefficients of soil moisture retention curve (PWP, FC, θs). For this purpose 176 samples from East Azarbyjan and Guilan provinces were collected consisting of 10 various texture classes. Particle size distribution, total porosity, bulk density, organic matter, macro and micro porosity, EC, pH, CCE, geometric mean and standard deviation of the particle diameter, water content at -1 kPa, DEM and SAVI were used as PTFs inputs. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) and Bayesian Networks were used to predict PWP, FC, θs. The performance of the developed PTFs was evaluated using the root mean square error (RMSE) and the MGN test between the observed and the predicted values. Good improvement (based on RMSE) in the PTF’s ability to estimate the three coefficients was achieved with certain input combinations of basic soil properties, topography and vegetation information comparing with using only the basic soil properties as inputs. In comparing Bayesian Network and ANNs method, the results indicated that Bayesian Network estimated the three soil moisture retention curve coefficients more accurately and with greater reliability than the ANNs method.

In this study an experiment was conducted based on completely randomized design in research greenhouse of Mohaghegh Ardabili University in 2014. Treatments consisted of inoculated seeds by Pseudomonas putida strains 1, 10, 19 and 150, Pseudomonas fluorescence strains 69 and 159, combination of strain 19 from Pseudomonas putida and strain 69 from Pseudomonas fluorescence and control (without inoculation). Plants were kept in greenhouse until six-leaf stage then exposed to low temperature stress (8 ºC temperature for 270 minutes during five consecutive days). After exposing plants to low temperature stress, traits such as seedling height and dry weight, photosynthetetic pigments, total carbohydrates, proline, membrane integrity, protein amount, catalase, peroxidase and poly phenol oxidase enzymes were measured. Results indicated that primingof okra seeds with plant growth promoting bacteria increased seedling height and dry weight, physiological and biochemical characteristics. Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas fluorescence increased cell membrane integrity via increase in leaf proline content, total soluble carbohydrates and antioxidant enzymes. The greatest promotion of seedling growth under low temperature was obtained by priming of seeds with Pseudomonas putida strain 150 and of Pseudomonas fluorescence strain 69.

Soils contaminated with heavy metals such as cadmium (Cd), mainly are poor in nutrients and microbial population. Water deficit stress can deteriorate the situation for healthy plant growth. Application of plant growth promoting rhizobacterium as bio-fertilizer can influence the availability of nutrients and improve the plant growth and health. For this reason, a greenhouse factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications. Treatments consisted of two levels of Micrococcus yunnanensis bacterium (with and without bacterium), four levels of Cd (5, 10, 20, and 40 mg kg-1), and three levels of soil moisture regimes (100, 80, and 65% of field capacity). Results showed that increasing soil Cd contamination, resulted in reduction of shoots dry weight and total manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) uptake, while the soil inoculation with bacterium moderated the negative effects of Cd on the plant by increasing shoots dry weight and total Zn uptake. The main effect of water deficit stress on the shoot dry weight, and the uptake of iron (Fe), Mn, Zn, and copper (Cu) were significant and reduced these traits while the soil inoculation with bacterium increased shoot dry weight and uptake of Fe and Zn and mitigated negative effects of water deficit stress.

Due to low porosity and slow water flow in clayey soils, the dominant pollutant transport mechanism may be molecular diffusion. The effect of consolidation of clayey soil on the chloride diffusion coefficient was investigated. The soil sample was collected from Nazloo region on North West of Urmia. After determination of soil physical parameters, the consolidation parameters were obtained. For determination of the chloride diffusion coefficient at different degrees of consolidation, when the cylindrical soil sample reached a certain degree of consolidation in the consolidation apparatus, the diffusion test was conducted and the diffusion coefficient was measured. This was conducted by the computer code POLLUTE by fitting the computed data on the observed concentration-time data. The results showed that by increasing the degree of consolidation and decreasing the soil void ratio from 0.4 to 0.35, in the range of stresses from 25 kPa to 400 kPa, the diffusion coefficient decreased from 5.94×10-10 m2/s to 5.36×10-10 m2/s. In the unloading process of consolidation from 400 kPa to 50 kPa the diffusion coefficient increased from 5.36×10-10 m2/s to 5.42×10-10 m2/s. The results of this study showed that the process of pollutant migration by molecular diffusion in the fine grained clayey soil of Nazloo was dependent on the degree of consolidation of the soil but the effect of consolidation on the decrease of soil diffusion coefficient is not significant. The good agreement between the observed and predicted data showed that the designed physical model, the adopted laboratory procedures and the theoretical model had good accuracy.

In this study, the effect of flip bucket at the end of ogee spillway on the energy dissipation rate and jet length has been investigated experimentally. Experiments on standard ogee spillway for buckets with take off angles of 32 and 52 and for no bucket condition were conducted. The rate of energy dissipation in this type of spillway was investigated with conducting 21 tests with discharge range between 330 to 864 L min-1 .The results showed that at the spillway with flip buckets and take off angles of 32 and 52 , the rate of energy dissipation was increased from 10 to 20 percent compared to the spillway having no bucket. The highest energy dissipation was occurred in the flip bucket with take off angle of 52 . Also the relative energy dissipation was decreased in all three modes with increasing discharge. The length of jet for flip buckets with angles of 32 and 52 was measured and it was releaved that the length of jet for bucket of 32 was greater than that for bucket of 52 . By increasing the discharge, the difference between the jet lengths of the two buckets was decreased and at the discharge rate of 864 L min-1, the length of jet was equal for the two buckets.

In recent years, drought caused a sharp decline in surface water resources in Qorveh-Dehgolan plain. This caused increasing exploitation of groundwater resources and exacerbation of aquifer level declining. The aim of this study is to evaluate interaction between groundwater and drought and wet periods in Qorveh-Dehgolan as well as to determinate correlation between them. At first, meteorological and hydrogeological drought characteristics were calculated by Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Groundwater Resource Index (GRI), respectively. Then correlation coefficient between SPI and GRI were calculated without lag time also with 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24 and 48 months lag times. The results showed that the highest value of positive and significant correlations were between 24-month SPI and 48-month GRI with 48 months delay and in 89.8% of wells, SPI and GRI had positive and significant correlation with 48 months delay. Therefore, the hydrological drought happened with lag time to meteorological drought. The Mann-Kendall test was used for determinating the trend existence or inexistence in groundwater level changes. The results showed that the water level of piezometer wells declined during the studied period at 99% confidence level. The average of groundwater level declining was 0.82 m/year. Regarding to the plotted maps, the steepest trend of groundwater level happened in central parts of Qorveh-Dehgolan plain that was between 1.5-2.4 m/year.

Information about forms of zinc (Zn) in calcareous soils is essential for understanding its bioavailability and mobility. To investigate the effects of salinity and organic matter on the chemical forms of Zn in a calcareous soil under maize cultivation, a factorial experiment as completely randomized design with three replications was conducted in greenhouse conditions. Factors included three salinity levels (0, 15 and 30 meq salt kg-1 soil) and two types of organic matter (manure and wheat straw), each of them at two levels (0 and 2 percent). Sequential extraction procedure of Singh et al. was used to measure Zn chemical forms. Results showed that the Zn concentrations of soluble exchangeable, carbonatic, mn-oxide fractions were increased and Organic fraction was decresed by increasing of salinity levels. Application of the all organic treatments caused to increase the Zn concentrations of soluble exchangeable, carbonatic, organic, mn-oxide and fe-oxide fractions. The Zn concentration of residual fraction in wheat straw treatment was reduced. The relative percentage of soluble exchangeable, organic, carbonatic, mn-oxide and fe-oxide fractions were increased and residual fraction was decreased by application of all organic treatments. Salinity caused to increase the relative percentage of soluble笗Ⅺ砞榹, carbonatic and mn-oxide fractions and to reduce the organic and crystalline fe-oxide fractions. Therefore, application of salinity and organic matter caused to redistribution of Zn chemical fractions. Also, the available Zn in soil had a positive and significant correlation with soluble笗Ⅺ砞榹, carbonatic, mn-oxide and fe-oxide fractions.

Water infiltration into soil plays key role in water cycle and its importance forced researchers to introduce appropriate models for its quantitative study. In the present study, the Kostiakov-Lewis, Kostiakov, Philip, Horton, and SCS models were evaluated for estimating measured cumulative infiltration by double rings in two different calcareous soils of Bajgah region in Fars province. Coefficients of the aforementioned models were determined by the least sum of squared error method. Mean of error (ME), root mean error (RME), Willmot,s index of agreement (W), efficiency factor (EF) of model, index of mean error percentage (MEP) and determination coefficient (R2) were used for evaluation of the models efficiency. The Kostiakov-Lewis with R2 of 0.998 -0.999 was the most suitable model in estimation of the cumulative infiltration in the studied soils. The Kostiakov-Lewis and SCS with mean errors of 0.0019 to 0.064 overestimated, while Philip, Kostiakov and Hortonwith mean errors of -0.0033 to -0.0377 underestimated the infiltration. In general, results indicated that using the models (specifically Kostiakov-Lewis) in the studied coarse textured soil in comparison to fine textured soils for short times after beginning of infiltration had more accurate results. This matter should be considered in infiltration modeling in calcareous soils. Of course, it is recommended that the experiments be done in wider ranges of soil textures and conditions and by taking into consideration the circumstances of each soil, appropriate managerial decisions be taken.

Bio-surfactants as surface active compounds are produced by microorganisms. In this study bio-surfactant production by Pseudomonas putida1694 were evaluated in different carbon sources (kerosene, sugar cane molasses and glucose) at 30 and 37 °C within the incubation periods of 48 and 168 hours. For screening bio-surfactant production, hemolysis, and oil collapse and emulsification index, surface tension reduction and cell surface hydrophobicity tests were done. Results showed that P. putida1694 was able to grow in all carbon sources. Based on bio-surfactant production, this strain had a positive or β hemolysison blood agar medium. The Compounds produced by this strain in each of carbon sources at both temperatures and incubation periods collapsed down. The maximum surface tension reduction was recorded in the samples containing kerosene as carbon source incubated at 37 ° C for 168 hours, in which bacterium reduced surface tension to 20.33 mNm-1. Themaximum emulsifying and cell hydrophobicitywere recorded in molasses (28%) and kerosene(70%) respectively. Bio-surfactant production amounts by P. putida1694 in kerosene, glucose and molasses as carbon sources were 10.2, 1.7 and 5.5 g L-1, respectively. Due to higher production of bio-surfactant in the presence of kerosene, it seems that the bacteria can be used for refining oil-contaminated soils.

The effective indices such as water footprint should be considered in optimal allocation of water resources. In this study, the water footprint index with considering the direct and indirect water consumptions in three components of blue, green and grey water resources was applied to evaluate the total amount of water consumption in crop production of Lake Urmia basin. The LMDI (Logarithmic mean divisia index) approach was applied to determine the impact of the different factors on the variability of water footprint. The LMDI index showed the weighted sum of relative changes in the effective parameters. According to the results, although a reduction trend in the calculated water footprint components during the studied years (2003-2010) was observed, there were some irregular trends and changes in the amount of each component of water footprint at the same period. Irrigation systems and agricultural activities in the region were identified as increasing parameters while crop yield was a decreasing parameter in the water footprint changes. The maximum amount of total water footprint was related to 2004, in which the blue, green and grey water footprint values were 23419, 8832 and 2437 m3 ton-1, respectively. Also, the minimum amount of total water footprint was related to 2006, in which the blue, green and grey water footprint values were 19056, 7562 and 2076 m3 ton-1, respectively.

In this study, a two-dimensional width averaged model "CE-QUAL-W2" has been used to simulate the water level, temperature and quality of Shirin Darreh Dam during a period of eleven months in years 2012-2013. In this way, the model was calibrated and validated. Then, the reservoir water quality was evaluated for different reduction of the amount of input phosphorus. Finally, the effect of increment of the sub layer oxygen concentration on water reservoir quality improvement was studied. Sampling and simulation results showed a sharp decline in the amount of dissolved oxygen in hypolimnion and an increase in the concentration of phosphorus in this region and so the eutrophic condition of the lake at the end of the simulation. The results also showed that increasing of the sub layer oxygen concentration reduced the amount of phosphorus release and improvement of water quality. For example, the reservoir conditions are changed from eutrophic to mesotrophic, when the amount of phosphorus entering the reservoir reduced 60-70 percent. Furthermore, the phosphorus concentration reached to 50 mg/lit in normal condition which it would be reduced to 25 mg/lit when Oxygenation device was applied.

The solar radiation reached to the Earth surface is an important parameter in thermal balance of the Earth- Atmosphere system. In this study, the Black and Allen models were used for estimating daily global solar radiation reached to the Earth surface and the atmosphere upper layer, respectively. The estimated radiation at ground level by Black model was compared with the Pyranometer data at Mashhad station. The results showed that there was little difference between the amount of radiation measured with Pyranometer and the estimated one by the Black model. Then the coefficients of Angstrom-Prescott model for Mashhad station, was calibrated. In the next stage, the obtained results were compared with the Angstrom-Prescott models that had been proposed in previous researches for Mashhad station. The results showed that the developed model in this study had a high accuracy. Root mean squared error values for the model proposed here by authors, Alizadeh and Khalili and FAO were obtained 4.57, 4.61 and 5.02 MJ M-2 day-1, respectively. Then, the Angstrom-Prescott coefficients at other stations of Khorasan Razavi Province were calibrated using values obtained by the Black and Allen relations. Finally, the obtained radiation values on a horizontal surface on ground level using ordinary Kriging were mapped. The results of the mapping of radiation showed that the southern areas of the province had more potential from the view of receiving solar radiation.

The average yield of sour lemon orchards in the country is lower as compared to the global average. Deviation from optimum percentage (DOP) is a simple method that can be used to design a balanced fertilization program.The index indicates the nutritional status and nutrient deficiency or excess, and can be used to prioritizes the plants nutrients need. For this study, three important areas of Hashtbandi, central Minab and Roodan in the province were selected, and 20 gardens of sour lemon were considered in each area (total 60 gardens). The sampling of the leaves as well as yield measurement were done. The average of DOP was calculated for the nutrients. According to this, nutritional priorities were determined as Mn> Fe> Zn> N> K> Cu> Cl> B> P for sour lemon gardens in Hormozgan province. The reference values that was obtained in this study, could be used in Hormozgan gardens sour lemon to evaluate the nutritional balance with DOP method and to make as appropriate decision. Consumption ofthe micronutrients manganese, iron and zinc in these gardens was a priority based on the results of this study.

Analysis of the trends of refrence evapotranspiration in any region is very important. In the present study, data of twelve meteorological stations in the North East of Iran, were used to estimate refrence ETo using Papadakis and FAO Penman–Monteith empirical models. The outputs of the models were evaluated based on different interpolation methods and then the results of the Cokriging method with lower RMSE were identified as the refrence evapotranspiration zones using the ArcGIS10/2. Trends were evaluated using the Mann-Kendall (MK) nonparametric test. The results revealed that the highest and lowest values of refrence evapotranspiration took place in stations located in the provinces of South and North Khorasan respectively. The annual ETo showed upward trend from north to south. Altitude and latitude had greater weights in determination of refrence evapotranspiration zones. The temporal trends of annual ETo were increasingly insignificant at 0.05%. The upward trends in Gonabad, Sabzevar, Boshrooyeh and Gha’een were significant at 0.05% level. An annual decreasing trend line slope was estimated up to -14 mm in Bujnoord and Ghoochan stations, whereas positive slope up to 17 mm in Ferdows and Mashhad stations were observed. Trends of climatic parameters were significant only for precipitation and relative humidity in Birjand station. Regarding the parameters of minimum temperature, maximum temperature and sunshine hours, the trends were upward in all the stations, and the changes for wind speed, precipitation and relative humidity were both upward and downward. Therefore, the main causes of increased potential evapotranspiration in the region were minimum temperature, maximum temperature and sunshine hours. The falling and rising changes of relative humidity, precipitation and wind were significant as well.

Determining deviation from optimum percentage (DOP) index and diagnostic recommendation integrated system (DRIS) index for evaluation of nutritional status of onion (Allium cepa L.) and also for comparison of these two procedures, leaf samples were collected from 50 fields and N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and B concentrations were determined. On the bases of crop yield, the fields were divided into two groups with low and high yielding populations. DRIS norms were determined for the different nutrients ratios. DRIS indices were calculated to evaluate nutrients balances. The optimum concentrations as reference values were used for the calculating of DRIS indices. The optimum nutrients concentrations in leaf were calculated from relationships between DRIS index and nutrient concentrations considering the fitted models show points where the DRIS indices are equal to zero. The optimum macro nutrient concentrations were, 2.94, 0.27, 4.40, 1.82, and 0.25 % N, P, N, Ca, Mg, and for micro nutrients107, 50, 18, 13, 27 mg/kg for Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, respectively.. On the bases of DRIS indexe means, the respective for requirement of micro nutrients and macro nutrients were Cu>Ca>K=Mn>P>B>Mg>Zn>N>Fe in low yielding farms. On the bases Means of DOP indexes, the respective for requirement of micro nutrients and macro nutrients were Ca>K>Cu>P>B>Mn>Mg>N>Fe>Zn in low yielding farms. Comparison of the DRIS indices for macro and micro nutrients with the DOP indices revealed that Ca, K and Cu were the most deficient elements in all low-yielding fields showing that both methods provide similar information in the interpretation of results of leaf analysis. To validate DRIS norms and verify the efficiency of DRIS and DOP as methods for improving the interpretation of analysis results of leaf, the fertilizer experiments should be conducted on onions in a low-yielding field.

Water and nitrogen are the most important effective limiting factors for agricultural production in arid and semi-arid regions. Therefore, determining the amount of root water uptake under simultaneous water and nitrogen deficit stress conditions can play a key role in farm water management particularly in saving water and fertilizer with the purpose of maximum crop yield and consequently the maximum economical profit. The objective of this research was to introduce and evaluate derived models under simultaneous water and nitrogen deficit stress conditions and consequently calibrating their parameters for basil. In order to do so, derived models from the composition of Mitscherlich-Baule (MB) for nutrients stress conditions and models of Feddes et al., (F), van Genuchten (VG), recommended exponential (EXP) and Homaee et al., (H) for water stress conditions and also the composition model of Liebig-Sprengel (LS) for nutrients and model of Feddes et al., (F) for water stress conditions were presented and evaluated. This experiment was conducted with four irrigation water quantity levels including 120, 100, 80, and 60 percent of crop water requirement and four nitrogen fertilizer levels including 100, 75, 50, and zero percent of fertilizer requirement based on soil fertility test with three replicates. The results indicated that among the evaluated models, based on calculated statistical indices, the derived model of MB-EXP, MB-F, MB-VG, and MB-H had the best fitting on the measured data respectively.