نشریه جستارهای نوین ادبی
سال چهل و نهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 192، بهار 1395)

Intertextuality is a literature theory which has been based on Bakhtine’s Dialogism theory. It was firstly stated by Juliet Kristova. According to this theory each text is produced and read in a dialogue with other texts. Intertextual criticism is a way of reading texts which signifies texts to each other rather than the real world. The hypotext, Habil (Abel) and Qabil (Cain), which hascome in different holy books is inspiring. Kristova specifies that intertextuality is not studying the references. Discovering theintertextual and inter-semiocity relations led to the penetration into the second layer of the text (sign layer). Thus,we can find hidden purports of a text through intertextual criticisms. I read tow texts (Abel Sanchez by Miguel de Unamuno and Symphony of Death by Abbas Maroofi) in dialogue with hypotext (Habil and Qabil). The signifianceof the process differs according to the quality and quantity of deviation from hypotexts. Thus, the dialogue factor to estimate the level of influence of dialogue on both textswill be defined. Inconclusion, this paper proposes a practical method for creating new texts in relation to any other text to introduce an applied factor for categorizing intertextualitis.
In this paper, we’re dealing with three texts: first, the story of Cain and Abel in holy books and then two other books namedAbel written by Miguel D. Unamuno, and finally Samphoni-e Mordegan by Abbas Maroufi. The story of Able and Cain in Holy books is considered as the default text in this paper.Using the deviation method, the meaning is being analyzed in these two texts. In other words, in this research, a different method of discourse analysis with a default text is being approached and the way the meaning has been created through the dialogue will be discussed. This practical approach needs a specific criterion to show the interrelatedness of the texts in dialogue terms. A survey of other researches in the same field will be provided beforehand.
Any attempts to makea theory more practical leads to establishing somewhat quantitative criteria for organizing the data. Structuralists have followed the same rule in most cases. Intertextuality, like any other literary theory, was a sort of discovery in the beginning. Studying Dostoyevski’s works, Bakhtin noticed different voicesfrom that of the author. Kristeva considered the production and reading of a text as a result of the connection of that text to others of the same sort. Gradually, this discovery was polished by Barth, Jenie, Rifater, and others which resulted intoachanged, more clear and definitive literary theory. Jenie and Rifater analyzed various texts in attempt to apply this new theory and defined several criteria for intertextuality categorization. Comparing Abel Sanchez written by Unamuno withSamphoni-e Mordegan by Abbas Maroufi, this paper tries to introduce a new index to the intertextuality. It revealed that contrary to the form of Unamuno’s text, he hasdeviated more in his default text than Maroufi. The deviation has not been apparent to the extent of removing the footprints of the default text but has doubted Cain’s sinfulness. This creation of meaning is an advantage of Unamuno’s text. He not only creates new meaning by changing the characterization, but also creates meaning for the default text by using the same names and other direct references throughout the story. Having finished the story, the reader finds himself thinking about Abel and Cain rather than Abel Sanchez and Joaquin Munger. This is one of the features of dialogue which causes both texts to promote to a new level.
Thus, in intertextual readings, the use of dialogue factor can be named as a criterion to evaluate the meaning-creation. Furthermore, the manner of Unamuno’s dialogue with the default text of Abel and Cain in Holy Books could influence the creation of meaning in the new text. This type of generation of meaning, which has been done before, urges the writers to doubt the decency of the characters in other stories. Did Othello have the right to kill his wife? Is it acceptable for Hamlet’s uncle to betray him? Did Abel deserve to be killed by Cain?

Based on the general issues in cognitive linguistics regarding the role of different linguistic processes in meaning construction in a narrative text, introducing a new methodological analysis of meaning construction process in the emergent story of a text needs a methodological model. Hence, the general purpose of this article is to introduce and apply a cognitive analytical model for investigating the meaning construction processes in narrative texts. In this line, Facuconnier Mental Space Theory (MST) (2008) and Dancyiger Methodology (2008, 2010) introduced powerful arguments about the meaning construction in discourse. Cognitive analysis of mental spaces is very helpful in determining writer`s/ reader's mind while producing/reading text. The present article accounts meaning construction in a Persian narrative text by exemplifying, as an example of five other texts which have been analyzed by the researchers in the main project. The aim is to test the application of MST principles in cognitive analysis of long narrative text along with introducing MST as a new methodological tool for cognitive narratology.
As a qualitative research, this article uses descriptive-analytical method, i. e. after describing the “narrative mental space” representation in the story. Besides, the application of the fundamental theoretical research concepts in creating coherence and dynamism in the emergent story would be analyzed and discussed.
The data analysis has been divided into two stage based on the research Fistly, recognizing and representing narrative mental spaces, and secondly representing the blending of these spaces in the emergent story.
The present article, as a part of an extended project in the application of MST in narrative text analysis, attempts to answer the fundamental question in cognitive linguistics that how different language processes can play a role in the creation of an emergent story in a narrative text. The analyses practically shows mental spaces make the writer or reader able to create and understand the coherence and dynamism of the story. The findings clear the narrative counterpartsof fundamentalmental space concepts as elements, counterpartelements, propagator element, identity relation, reference chain, discourse management, and bidirectional projection. Narrative counterparts of these concepts can be participants, compression, and viewpoint management in a narrative text.
Narrative mental space representation and NMSB model show many complexities in the texts that cannot be seen or notified by the reader in the first reading.
Analyses also show that some mental technical concepts can have narrative equivalences as direct/indirect speech and feeling/belief citations which make the blended emergent story. By NMSB model we represent the topology of the story. The analyzed diagrams show how the emergent story will reach coherence and dynamism as a whole.
Thus, the findings can show the practical role of mental space concepts in analyzing the meaning construction process in narrative texts and as well as introducing Dancyiger methodology as a new methodological tool for narratology.
As the literature presents, the practical side of mental space theory has always been neglected by Persian researchers. So the present article seems to be somewhat, can fill this gap filling.

The present article has adopted a critical discourse perspective to study Ahmad-e Jām’s Ons al-Tāʾebīn. Ahmad-e Jām (b. 1049 AD in Nāmaq, near Toršīz, Khorasan; d. 1141AD) was one of the mystics of Khorasan, Iran. Traces of cultural transition can be found in his works and Ons al-Tāʾebīn is his masterpiece. The book mainly criticizes the official mysticism of the writer’s time. The cult which had been formed in Nishapur, the political center of the time, did not recognize the dissident voices. One can well think that the sole motive for writing the book was basically to challenge the same dominant ideology.
Late 5th and early 6th centuries AH witnessed a cultural transition and a disruption of the order of discourse. Ons al-Tāʾebīn was created in the same discursive milieu and it reflected the ambience of change in this period. During the writer’s lifetime, Hanafi and Shafi, two schools of Sunni jurisprudence, were popular in Nishapur. Before the time of Nizam al-Mulk, the Persian scholar and vizier of the Seljuk Empire, many of the Sufis in this center had Hanafi leanings. There was a compatibility between jurisprudence and Sufism at the time; however, when Nizam al-Mulk took hold of power, the balance was tipped in favor of Shafis and this time there appeared a kind of harmony between Sufism and Shafi jurisprudence.
Meanwhile, the scholars of Islamic scholastic theology (Kalam) were active and Ashʿari scholastic theology was gradually casting its shadow on Khorasan. The official mysticism of the time adjusted itself with scholastic theology. Nizam al-Mulk and other representatives of political power adapted themselves to the trio and were integrated as the fourth element of the new order of discourse.
The integration of politics, mysticism, Sahfi jurisprudence, and Ashʿari scholastic theology were the principal elements of the new order of discourse. This naturally pushed Shia jurisprudence, scholastic theology, and Karrami Sufism to the margins. Ahmad-e Jām who favored Karramiyya expressed his disapproval against official Sufism. In his Ons al-Tāʾebīn, he sets the two Sufist discourses against each other: one strongly committed to sharia and the other one which had a utilitarian attitude using sharia as a means to its ends. The first one can be termed as the “committed” approach and the other as the “non-committed” one. He strongly praised the first and dispraised the second.
Different strategies adopted in his Ons al-Tāʾebīn reveal his attitude in this regard; among them one can refer to naming and describing, allusion to historical events, representation of time and place, authoritative documentation, linguistic emotionalism, metaphorization, and other techniques. He criticizes the philosophers of his time; however, he has a high regard for the kind of logic which serves Shariah. Although he did not approve of official Karrami sect, he endorses their ideology both overtly and covertly.

Persian literary works with no apparent political themes have for long played an effective role in the political orientation of Iranians. In fact, a great part of Iranshahri political doctrine has found its way intothe literary works in the Islamic era. These include the four firstchapters ofNizami’sMakhzan al-Asrar(The Treasury of Mysteries). A glimpse at NizamiGanjavi’s bibliography (Radfar, 1992) and Dictionary of NizamiScholorship(Noroozi, 2012) shows that in spite of Nizami scholars’efforts, the political thoughts ofNizamiareyet to be explored.
European scholars have also showed interest in Nizami’spoetry and thoughts. In the introduction to her English translation of Haft Peykar, Julie Scott Meisamihas presented an analysis of this book (Meisami, 1995). Michael Barry’s profound and unique interpretation of Nizami’sHaft Peykar (Barry, 2006) is a valuable book published in France. It has also been translated into Persian. The subject of our study, however, has not been directly addressed by any of the above-mentioned scholars.
Russian, Azarbaijani, and Tajik scholars such as Krimsky, Berthels, Rafili, Hoseinov, Mirza Khaleghzadeh, Dadkhodayova, Mirza Torsonzadeh, A’lakhan Afsahzad have also conducted studies on Nizami. However, due to the dominantthoughts of their research, they have neglected the political aspects of Makhzan al-Asrar (VafiSani, 2015). The articles addressing the political thoughts of Nizami are the following: 1. Iranians’ method of government as reflected in Nizami’sworks (Safayee, 1974)
2. Political thoughts reflected in Haft Peykar(Matini, 1991)
3. Nizami’sbooks of wisdom (Ansari, 1992)
4. Politics and kingdom as reflected in Nizami’sthoughts (Rajaee, 1992)
5. Iranshahri political doctrine in Nizami’sEskandarNameh (Momtaz, 2005)
6. Iranshahri political doctrine in Iranian painting, a case study of BahramGoor and the shepherd who hanged his dog, from Nizami’sKhamsehon King Tahmasb’s period (KeshavarzAfshar, Tavoosi, &Zeymaran, 2010)
Research in the history and pre-Islamic Iranians’ intellectual tradition familiarizes us with a consistent model of political and strategic ideas, which is generally referred to as the Iranshahri political doctrine (Rezaee Rad, 1999). This doctrine has been survived for centuries while maintaining its capability to generate thought and to cohabit with other cultures. In other words, the existence of permanent elements in Iranian intellectual tradition before Islam had given it the privilege to be imitated and used as a superior doctrine on government by Muslim rulers (Ghaderi&RostamVandi, 2006)
AsSeljuks came to power, many Iranian thinkers realized that the best way to prevent bloodshed andviolence was to teach them how to run the country by using Iranians’ political thoughts and experience. Nizam al-Mulk was the greatest example of such thinkers and his Siyasatnameh (Book of Government) is the key book in teachingthe Iranians effective rules to Seljuk Empire and the subsequent dynasties. To show the importance of the book, it suffices to say that all the books written afterwardson the subject of politics and government were to a greater or lesser degree affected by it. Influenced by the content and method of Siyasatnameh, Nizamirecounts the attributes of a king,at the first four chapters of his Makhzan al-Asrar. Towards the end of the Seljuk period, he seemed to wish to uphold the legacy left by the great vizier.
Nizami had studied not only Shahnameh, Sanai’sHadighat al-Haghighah (The Walled Garden of Truth), Nizam al-Mulk’sSiyasatnameh, Gorgani’sVis VaRamin (Vis and Ramin), and KelilehvaDemneh, but alsohehad been influenced by Ghazali’s works. In these works, Nizami had found points about the various magnificent manifestations of man’s nature which were not known at the time. This gave him the background knowledge to use in designing his ideal model of government.
This research is based on the descriptive-analytical method using library resources. This study is an attempt to provide answers to the following questions: 1. In his first work, which is the result of seclusion, self-discipline and interior journey, and his first experience of expressing Shari’ah in verse, how does Nizami define concepts such as justice, politics, and government?
2. Through which references have Iranshahri-related concepts found their way into his mind and tongue?
To find convincing answers to these questions, the cultural heritage of the Sassanid, the Post-Islamic sources such asShahnameh, Sanai’sHadighat al-Haghighah, KelilehvaDemneh, Siyasatnameh (Siyar al-Molouk), and Ghazali’sNasihat al-mulukhavebeen examined.
The findings are summarized as it follows: 1. Nizami, as a social reformer and ethical teacher,utilized the richness of Persian and the knowledge from the above-mentioned sources,andtried to reform the government through Iranians’ political thought and action. That is why some of the components of the political doctrine of Iranshahri such as the role of minister, justice, lack of justice, and its consequences for nature, integration of religion and state, etc. have frequently been referred to in Makhzan al-Asrar’s stories,andare mostly inspired by Anushirvan’s desired tradition of kingdom.
2. In Makhzan al-Asrar, Nizami considers lack of justice as the root of all social maladies. For him, politics, in its theoretical sense, constituted a quest for justice for everyone and having faith in the good-nature of human beings.In fact, he was not pessimistic of reaching that goal. This explains his belief in the possibility of changingking’sbehavior, through advising.
3. Nizami, influenced by the Iranian culture, believed that the main duty of a king was to establish justice; thus, any king doing injustice was not to be called aking. In the story of the old woman and Sanjar, Nizami calls the king “an aggressive Hindu” (NizamiGanjavi, 2008) simply because he failed to do his duty; that is, to rule justly.
4. In the ancient Iranian intellectual tradition, the king was the source of all good and evil, whose action affected the people and the country. Kings were likened to springs of which pure or fowl water flowed forth depending on their nature. If the king was just, there would be abundance as well as much rain and rivers, and springs would be overflowed. Farmers would gather riper crops from the fields, roads would be safer, and the government would thrive (Crone, 2010). This thought seems to have affected Nizami’sworks through Shahnameh, Siyasatnameh, and Ghazali’s works as well as through the cultural atmosphere of the 12th century. Nizami has clearly expressed his understanding of this ancient political tradition in the story of Anushirvan and the ruined village.
5. Even though Nizami did not attend the kings’ courts, he performed from his own position of seclusion his duties as a counselor and vizier. Considering the function of viziership in the social and political structure of the ancient Iran, he considered himself a poet-vizier by following Bozorgmehr, the wise vizier of Anushirvan. In the story of Anushirvan and the ruined village, he describes the vizier as a man of wit and wisdom, and says that a king’s injustice will ruin the country. He also states that the survival of a kingdom, as well as peace and satisfaction of the people and the thriving of the country depends on the wisdom and impartiality of the vizier.
6. Nizami also believed in the integration of state and religion, as described in the Letter of Tansar and King Ardeshir’s Covenant, as well as in most of the works from the Islamic era such as Ferdowsi’sShahnameh (2014), Miskawayh’sTajarib al-Umam(1990),Sanai’sHadighatal-Haghighah(1980), NasrallahMunshi’sKelilehvaDemneh (1983),Nizamal-Mulk’sSiyaral-Molouk(1961), and Ghazali’sal-Iqtisad fial-Itiqad(1993). Nizami’s spiritual position brought him respect among the kings. This gave him the privilege to protest against kings in his own poetical way, reminding them of their main duty as guardians of religion and the country (NizamiGanjavi, 2008).
7. The establishment of new and just rules is one of the features of Iranshahri political doctrine. A new orderdoes not involve a dramatic change or revolutionin the modern sense of the word, but a social reform; an improvement of what is wrong or corrupt. Nizami seems to clearly show this in the story of Anushirvan and the ruined village, where Anushirvan, being deeply affected, finds that the best way to restore the society to its previous state is to rule justly.
8. Books of advice provide particularly suitable means to address maladiesof the society. A glance at Makhzan al-Asrar shows that the poet critically examinesall inhuman subjects which draw the society toward evil. He argues that the Prophet’s tradition has been deviated. In particular, he holds pleasure–seeking kings and impious clergymen accountable for this deviation (NizamiGanjavi, 2008). In the third chapter, criticizing the social circumstances, he says that humanity has vanished and good people are hidden like angles (ibid). Nizami’saims at eradicating the social maladies by reviving the ethical principles. He believes that by purifying man from worldly belongings, he can construct a society based on mortification and devotion, which is less congenial to man’s nature.

Metaphor definition in Islamic rhetoric has similarities with the theories of metaphor in the West. These similarities do not mean that the traditional definition still works so that rethinking of definition and providing new definitions is not necessary anymore. Such an approach certainly will not be promising. The result of these efforts will enclose metaphor in the realm of rhetoric and word. In the West metaphor is not only limited to poetry and literature and is not a tool for garnishing the words but also it has been imported to the realm of thought and knowledge and is placed at the center of human thinking. Moreover, in the West metaphors have been studied from various points of views such as linguistics, philosophy, psychology, etc. and are used in many sciences. This paper aims at presenting the historical evolution of the concept of metaphor in Islamic rhetoric and in the West along with highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of the comparative analysis of metaphor.
This study is relied on the descriptive analysis by using library research and taking advantage of the resources available in a qualitative approach. The present investigation tries to deal with the following questions: 1. How is the historical evolution of the concept of metaphor in Islamic rhetoric and in the West?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of comparative analysis of metaphor?
3. What are the similarities and differences between metaphor definition in Islamic rhetoric and in the West?
In general, there is a definite definition for each device in Islamic rhetorical tradition and this definition has been almost constant in the course of its history. For example, considering all proposed definitions of metaphor in Islamic rhetoric, a comprehensive definition of it can be gained. Most of our rhetoricians’ have endeavored to classify metaphors while they have focused on its beauty. Besides, most measures they have done were about the structure and production process and understanding of metaphor, accordingly. On account of comparing the disparate metaphor definitions, it should be noticed that rhetoric in Iranian and Islamic definitions are bound to one type of trope literature (the use of figurative language). However, the west definition of metaphor is boarder and more inclusive of different types of tropes, metonymy, and irony. Perhaps, this is due to the long-standing interest of Persian rhetoricians in creating more categories of the rhetorical devices.
In the West, metaphor has transcended the restrictions of words and rhetoric by entering into the realm of thought and understanding. There are different theories of metaphor in the West, while in Islamic rhetoric we can offer a fairly comprehensive definition for all the proposed definitions on metaphor. Through the comparative analysis, novel ideas in the works of Islamic rhetoric can be achieved. There are similarities between theories of metaphor in Islamic rhetoric and the West. For example, Jurjani asserts that metaphors are more than a simple simile and max black to be reduced to the corresponding simile. Seemingly, Jurjani’s approach adheres somewhat to the theory of conceptualist. Sakkaki’s view has something in common with Donald Davidson. Subtle points like these may be revealed in reading the works of our classic rhetoricians, however, the mere existence of such similarities cannot provide a comprehensive comparative review. So, what should be considered is a critical review of metaphor theory in Islamic rhetoric, while trying to find novel ideas leading to the creation of new theories.

Tazkeres are a kind of considerable sources of investigation in Persian literature. In addition to their applications in well-known poet’s biographies, they can also be a resource for studying and representing the literary knowledge. Sirajuddin Ali Khan is one of the Indian outstanding scholars and poets of the in twelfth century whose work Majma Al-Nafayesis a significant critical thazkere. In this article, we explore Sirajuddin Ali Khan ҆s approach to the issue of style in Majma Al-Nafayes. More precisely, the present article tries to answer the following questions about khan Arezou’s attitudes to style inMajma Al-Nafayes and its synonyms; what it is and what issues are placed on? what are the different style poems, and based on what grounds they are named? what is the main hypothesis in the evaluation and descriptions of their stylistic approach.
The term of style in Majma Al-Nafayes is “Tarz”. Thus, we begin with this issue to survey this term and its related synonyms. Moreover, Khan Arezou s attitudes and approaches have been described and analyzed. He has sometimes applied this term. In this study, we use this term based on the evidence we have deduced, to improve the consistency of the text. Attending the text on the presented evidence in each case will be a good guide for the reader.
Result and Based onMajma Al-Nafayes, style is any deviations in the language and feeling that will differentiate it from other forms, genres, content, poets, time or the specific location within which it has been defined. The styles have been named by Khan based on the three main elements: structure, geographical and historical context, and the poet's name. The approaches can be classified in three major categories including structural, literary history, and comparative approaches. Impartiality in dealing with different styles (Tarz), critical look and lack of transcription, implicit observation in describing style, and appropriate selection of the poet’s poems are the most distinctive aspects ofKhan Arezou s stylistic attitude. He values traditional Persian poetry as well as the contemporary creative consciousness. Based on his intuitive understanding, he sometimes describes rhetorical aspects, expresses the vocabulary and language issues along with other properties such as semantic and content. When describing and explaining styles, his goal is showing the most prominent characteristic of poems along with clarifying forms according to the poems that are organized in his mind.
The analysis of khan Arezou s attitudes and approaches indicates that he could advance in the true path not by theories of stylistics and literary criticism but by the intuitive understanding and characteristic descriptions in the considerable situation. In view of this, it seems that in theinvestigation of literary movement and studying the detailed history of Persian poetry, it is necessary to focus on different original texts, such as tazkeres.