مجله جستار های زبانی
سال هشتم شماره 3 (پیاپی 38، امرداد و شهریور 1396)

Autism is the most concrete developmental disorder. Upon recent epidemiological studies, the prevalence of autism is about one in every 165 children. Only 25% of them have intellectual disabilities. So, it was thought that the disorder is not necessarily with severe cognitive damages. While the poor performance of children's communication is the main features of them, language profile of symptoms varies from person to person. On the one hand, children have ability to perform their language as the norm, and on the other hand, children who do not have the ability to speak. So, Language impairment is one of the main characteristics of children with autism; however, findings of the language deficits in these children have been inconclusive, and even less is known about the language profiles of Persian children with autism. Due to the heterogeneity in autism, we also need extensive investigations on the properties of their language in different languages. The aim of this study was to evaluate grammatical characteristics in children with autism by revealing the differences between age-matched and language-matched normal children.
Rizzi believes each structure will consist of three layers from top to bottom as follows: The complementizer phrase (CP), inflectional phrase (IP) and verbal phrase (VP). So, the Complement layer is syntactic materials to build question phrases, complement phrases and relative clauses. Inflectional layer is related to inflection, negative and auxiliary verbs while verb phrases are related to verb and its arguments.
Research data were collected at 10 autistic (ages 6 to 9) and 20 normal children (10 age-matched and 10 language-matched). First, we used The GARS-2, and the ASSQ for diagnosing high-functional Autistic children. The GARS-2 is a norm-referenced instrument that assists teachers and clinicians in identifying and diagnosing autism individuals aged 3 years to 22 years and in estimating the severity of the child's disorder. The ASSQ is a questionnaire which was filled out by the parents or teachers of children or adolescents (6 to 17 years of age). It stands for screening autism spectrum disorders. Children’s expressive grammar was measured by using the Persian Photographic Grammar Expression Test. It is the first reliable and valid test that exclusively and accurately evaluates grammatical characteristics of Persian-speaking children. It concludes 32 grammatical structures it has good content validity (CVI>80), convergent validity of two test (r P= 0.5) and a correlation coefficient equal to 0.91 and greater than 0.9 respectively. Also, the test has a good internal consistency (kr21= 0.82). And finally data were analyzed with Mann-Whitney test.
The result of this research showed that there is significant difference between autistic group and age-matched group in all structure except in WH question, yes/no question, different type of relative clauses, tense, aspect, mood, different type of pronouns and preposition. But comparison between autistic group and language-matched group showed that there is no significant difference in most structures except WH question, yes/no question, complementary relative clauses, different type of pronouns and preposition. Overall, autistic children demonstrated consistent expressive impairment in questions, relative clause and pronouns. It should be noted that these factors should be seriously considered in identification and treatment of this phenomenon.

This article examines the syntactic function used to produce relative clauses. The article considers Keenan and Comrie (1977) as its point of departure, and provides examples from both German and Persian language to confirm the existence of a hierarchy in these languages. Moreover, by comparing examples of relative clauses in both languages, the article seeks to answer the following question: what are some of the available form of relative clauses in German and Persian language? And what are some of the differences?
In this research, by using a descriptive-analytic method, we show that the structure of relative clause from any position is not possible in relative clause. We also discuss that what strategies will benefit different languages to overcome obstacles?
Additionally, the article will engage with a possible connection between relativisation strategy and noun phrase accessibility hierarchy. This study confirms that regardless of apparent differences between German and Persian, both languages have allowed for the formation of relative clauses as far as additional objects are concerned. The Persian language, the paper reveals, has gone one step beyond the German language in allowing for the formation of objects of comparison and coordination structure.
In addition, we showed that different languages ​​use different strategies to build relative clauses. In some languages, structure of active turn into passive for this purpose. In addition, we showed that the German language uses the relative pronoun strategy to make the position of additional object available for making relative clauses. Whereas the Persian language can make the most difficult hierarchical position which is comparison structure available for creating relative clauses by using Pronoun-retention strategy. Therefore, the German language is more like the French language and Persian language has abilities ​​as well as English language. We can conclude that languages which use more various strategies to create a relative clause individualize more syntactic positions for creating relative clauses. In addition, we demonstrated two of the generalizations that are visible in the table of Keenan and Comrie. Although, this subject has been studied in different languages, but an independent research which considers Persian and German languages from this point of view has never been done before. The results of this paper can be useful for teachers and learners of any of the two languages ​​considered in this research.

In the present paper, we aim to apply the Conceptual Blending Theory proposed by Fauconnier and Turner (2002) to the analysis of one poem by Garous Abdolmalekian. Our hypothesis rests upon the fact that the same cognitive operations which occur in everyday construction and understanding of language as put forth by Blending theorists, occur also at the construction and interpretation of a literary work by authors and readers alike, operations like setting of input mental spaces, cross-space matching, blending clashing material and creating emergent structure. The poem examined in the paper, "lahzeye sheni" ("the sandy moment") is quite a long poem divided into five stanzas. The method used in the examination is a descriptive- analytic one. To use conceptual means of Blending, each stanza is a blend behind which stands an integration network composed of two input spaces which have projected selective structure onto the blend leading to emergent structure in it. For example, in one stanza, what is presented is an image in which black pieces of paper thrown out of the window turn into crows and fetch on the tree branches. This is a blend created out of two inputs of crows and black pieces of paper which are integrated together through the compression of the vital relation of Change. In general, it can be assumed that the poet, while creating the work, has passed through theses mental stages before he comes up with the present form of the poem; that is, he has formed two mental input spaces, and then merged them together only to bring about a novel concept, some emerge structure, which is the poem itself. The assumption can be extended so as to include the reader on the other side of this act of communication: the reader also, on their encounter with the poem, in order to make sense of it, has to unpack the blend which is presented to him in the poem. The reader, through the mechanisms of disintegration and decompression, try to reconstruct the mental phases the author has gone through while creating the work, and thus to gain an interpretation of it. In conclusion, what this paper reveals is the fact that literary works depend upon the same basic mental operations, here the operation of blending, which are at work in like non-literary works. Moreover, a good reader is who is able to follow the author, in a reverse manner, in his act of creation, and to achieve an active participation in his act of reading. The Blending Theory, by analyzing the cognitive processes a work of art passes through, helps readers reach higher levels of the participation of the sort mentioned.

In Persian, two processes of derivation and compounding are used in a generative way to form new words. Thus, in this paper, in addition to analyzing complex words in Persian in construction morphology and lexical morphology /phonology, it is also tried to answer this question that which model is more effective in the analysis of complex Persian words? According to this question, the following hypothesis is proposed: ‘since construction morphology takes advantage of abstract morphological schemas, it would be more effective to construct hierarchical complex words and to present a semantic analysis of this model in the analysis of complex Persian words.’ Two main processes of compounding and derivation in construction morphology and lexical morphology /phonology were examined with regard to Persian data, comparing them with each other and studying irregular cases in lexical morphology/phonology. The results showed that the above-mentioned models both have a word-based approach to morphology. However, construction morphology, taking advantage of construction concept as the pairing of form and meaning in the analysis of morphological phenomena, proposing abstract schema for word formation patterns, hierarchical formation of complex words and the possibility of justifying their meanings especially endocentric compounds, is more effective than lexical morphology in the analysis of complex words based on Persian data and therefore the hypothesis of the study is accepted.

This quasi-experimental study aimed to investigate the effects of five different glossing conditions (i.e., full gloss, inference-gloss-gloss, gloss-retrieval-gloss, inference-gloss-retrieval-gloss, and gloss-retrieval-gloss-retrieval) on English as a foreign language (EFL) vocabulary retention. To this end, 140 MA students of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) were selected. The participants were randomly assigned to one glossing condition to read an English text. Within the text, five target words were glossed twice or three times in the text margin. For instance, in the inference-gloss-retrieval-gloss condition, the participants were expected to infer word meaning in the first encounter; then the word’s meaning was provided in the form of gloss in the second encounter; in the third word occurrence they were expected to remember word meaning; and at the last word encounter the word meaning was again provided in the form of gloss. To ensure the participants’ attention while reading, a multiple-choice reading comprehension test was administered after reading the text. Four weeks later, two vocabulary tests (i.e., form retention and meaning retention) were administered. The obtained data were analyzed through one-way MANOVAs and post hoc Scheffe tests. The results revealed that the gloss-retrieval-gloss-retrieval condition group outperformed the other four groups in both form retention and meaning retention posttests.

Modal verbs can shape the acts and decisions. They can either influence the states or the situations. In conjunction and disjunction’s relation between a subject and the object of value, these verbs have key factor and a crucial influence on the story. Changing the situations and going from one place and a level to another place needs sometimes the will and sometimes the power. Because of the juxtaposition of these two factors, the hero of “A man in a cage” faces some conflictual situations that he tries to resolve. Sometimes, he tends to preserve a relation and sometimes he wants to ends a relation, but in the both situations he cannot succeed. This story depicts the life of a man who is always trapped with what he has and what he loses. In such a situation his decisions and his works are so important because they show his position facing different problems and difficulties.
In our analysis, by referring to French semioticians theories like J. Courtés and J. Fontanille, we will show the underlying structure of signification emergence in novel. There are four factors being able to change an act: to want, to have to, to know and to be able to. Any change in each one of these basic elements could modify totally or partially the acts and the states.
This article tries to show the impact of modal verbs on how feelings can be produced and modified. Because the loneliness is one of the major characteristics of Hassan, we try to discover how these factors can augment or reduce this felling.
Hassan is strongly affected by loneliness and this felling makes him isolated and unable to carry out what he desires. Hassan is very dependent on his wife and other objects; this dependence makes him more isolated and his life seems mysterious to others. This is a very delicate situation and it is the source of his loneliness.

The present paper aims at investigating the aspectual system in; Mukriyani Kurdish language. The theoretical framework of this paper is based on the two-component theory of aspectuality (Smith (1997) and the Discourse Representation Theory (Kamp and Reyle 1993). These theories are employed to explain and categorize the relevant data in order to determine the possible aspectual categories. In this regard, a corpus including simple and complex verbs is analyzed from a semantic perspective to illustrate the possible lexical aspects (situation types) in Kurdish language. The verb phrase (VP) is regarded as the level of analysis in this research; accordingly, the verb along with its arguments and adjuncts are considered as a semantic complex conveying an aspectual meaning. The present research seeks to answer these questions: what are the main aspectual categories in Kurdish language? How can they be described at the level of verb phrase? What are those linguistic instruments which can trigger aspect shifting in the sentence? The results show that five kinds of situation-type aspects (activity, accomplishment, achievement, semelfactive, and state) exist in Kurdish language. Also, it indicates that some elements in the sentence trigger coercion (type shifting) which is responsible for derived aspectual categories. For example, durative adverbs transform the accomplishment verbs into activity verbs. In addition, the unspecified internal argument is incompatible with the accomplishments, because it turns the accomplishment verbs into activity ones. However, the accomplishments are compatible with specified internal arguments and also with completive adverbs. Concerning activity events, they are compatible with un-bounded and durative adverbs, and also with the unspecified internal argument. Nevertheless, the bounded spatial adverbs transform the aspectual category of activity into accomplishment. As far as semelfactive is concerned, it is turned into a repetitive activity when it is combined with the durative adverbs or with imperfective aspect; but it is compatible with punctual temporal adverbs. The verbs characterized by the stative aspect are turned into dynamic when they are combined with the progressive auxiliaries. However, most of the verbs with stative aspect may not be combined with the imperfective aspect. In the same vein, the achievement verbs undergo semantic change in the presence of durative adverbs or the imperfective aspect. In fact, the grammatical aspect of imperfectivitytriggers aspectual shifting when it is combined with some of the lexical aspects (such as semelfactive, achievement and state). The results show that the five kinds of lexical aspects in Kurdish language are highly influenced by grammatical computation. The argument structure and the different adverbial phrases have a great impact on determining the final aspect of the verb in the sentence. In other words, the aspect of a verb may not be regarded as a category representing an event in the real world; on the contrary, it should be considered as a grammatical entity made by different linguistic elements in the verbal constellation. In other words, the final aspectual category of a verb is determined by a syntactic relationship among verb, its argument structure, and also the adjuncts. Finally, the paper tries to present the formal representation of the different situation aspects in Kurdish language.

This paper examines the interaction between the visual and the verbal modes, that is, the multimodality of transferring the meaning in Persian visual poetry in terms of cognitive base of different types of integrations which occur in the brain after different sensory channels transferring the visual and verbal data. Although contemporary poetry is multimodal, the visual poetry is considered a type of poetry that has both the verbal and the visual as the dominant, mixed modes that tend to construct the poetic meaning. Different arrangement of words and images, which has a neurological ground, requires different kinds of cognitive processing and will therefore induce different feelings, impressions, and connotations. Consequently, the general meaning of a multimodal text goes beyond that of the combination of the two modes.
Drawing on cognitive semiotics, this paper demonstrates how the multimodal poem is conceptualized through embodied experience. Furthermore, it shows how various types of visual/verbal synthetization in a poetry text are differed by a number of distinctive features. Moreover, it is shown how the meaning-making process and the resulting affection become possible in each type of visual poetry. Through modifying Aarhus’s model (2005, 2012), itself based on Fauconnier and Turner’s conceptual blending theory, this research puts forward twelve different types of interaction between the verbal and visual modes, which, in this paper, are mentioned just the three super basic classified categories due to the limitation of the journal’s space. In fact, the three super categories are:It is about the general relations among the two or more modes or media. In this kind of relation, each mode/medium comprises separable and individually coherent texts in different mode/media to improve the meaning space at the end. It is divided into two sub-groups, which are Mode-adjacency and Multimodality.
It is a kind of transformations from one medium to another. An inter-medial text could be divided into Duplicating and Iconicity (Image iconicity, Relational diagram iconicity and Structural diagram iconicity). Duplicating could not presents an indissoluble connection of diverse modes as a fusion of different modal processes, while in the second one (Iconicity), the verbal and visual modes are fused together to represent the similarity or adjacency. The Duplicating could also be based on similarity or contiguity as well, that is the whole or a part of the text could be duplicated due to similarity of the verbal mode to visual mode or the contiguity of both together.
The third and the last type of relation between verbal and visual modes is mix-modal text, which is the combination of modes in a way that the complex signs in different modes would not be coherent or self-sufficient outside of that context. It is divided into four groups which are called in this research Counter-iconicity (Counter iconicity of mis-matching and Paradox-counter iconicity), Mode-situational inclusion, Mode-overlapping and complementary relation. Cognitively, these three basic types are processed respectively as following: bottom-up, top-down and integrated processing. Furthermore, these types are based on the structure of human brain and the functions of neurological cells, to study multimodal, especially visual poetry. Since both brain and literature contain similar patterns, it is inferred that each type of verbal-visual interaction that is constructed through a particular cognitive process will necessarily form specific emotions and impressions.

Teaching/learning French nasal vowels are one of the problems encountered by Iranian teachers and students in institutes and universities. The problems arise due to the fact that there are no approximate phonetic analogues for those vowels in Persian. In the present study, the acoustic phonetics is used. It is a method based on acoustic analysis using speech analysis and phonetics software. In recent years, voice analysis software’s have made it possible to identify phonetic errors with precision. The research objective is to identify French nasal vowels errors by Iranian students and analyze inter-phoneme-phonetic data. The population under study consists 8 students of the French language at University of Isfahan during the first semester 2015-16. Student’s oral productions have been analyzed by using analysis software with regard to structural physical parameters of F1, F2 and F3. As the results of the present study demonstrate, students in the production of French nasal vowels (CVn) are in trouble due to the absence of such vowels in the native language. The process of “unpacking nasal vowels” and “nasalizing the oral vowels” are evident due to the impact of native language. Therefore, the frequency of phonetic errors, French nasal vowels, has a meaningful relationship with the French nasal vowels characteristics and phonetic structure of the students’ native language.

Nowadays, subject crush in its own subjective and theoretical form is the focus of attention in linguistic milieu. To this end, scholars should accept some in adaptations in their points of view with current issues in literary science where some of their proponents ignore the intention of the author. This article tries to investigate the impact of this approach on Persian linguists and scrutinizes the unacceptable consequences of subject crush subjectivity. In addition, the author wants to know why some followers of this approach do not pay attention to author intention. In order to respond to these questions and by applying and criticizing some scholars of this realm like Saussure, Pierce, Hjelmslev, Wimsatt, Barthes and Breadsley, this article explains the reason of subjectivity of the words by referring them to the external entities. Hence, it verifies what has the impact on the author’s intention. The impact of these kinds of discussions on other related sciences like Uṣūl, Literature, their Acceptance or Refutation are the Main Objectives of the Present Research.

This study aims at comparing the effectiveness of direct instruction and multimedia instruction on six type of Dysgraphia. In this study the authors answered three questions. Does direct instruction of six types reduce misspelling? Does multimedia education reduce misspelling in just six types? Does the effectiveness of direct teaching and learning effectiveness multimedia reduce misspellings together in six different categories? The Method of this study is experimental with pretest and posttest and control group. After preparing the necessary instrument for this research including instruction spelling software and spelling test Karimi and Wechsler intelligence scale children- review (WISC- R), 39 female students in the third grade of elementary school were selected based on multistage sampling method and were divided into three groups. The first group was exposed to independent variable of direct instruction, the second group was exposed to independent variable of multimedia instruction and the third one-control group-received no instruction. After collecting the spelling scores from all three groups in the pretest and posttest, the data were analyzed by SPSS software univariate analysis of variance. The result indicated that direct instruction and multimedia instruction was significantly effective on dysgraphia improvement. Also effectiveness direct instruction was more effective than multimedia instruction on some of spelling mistakes and multimedia instruction also effectiveness was more effective than multimedia instruction on some of spelling mistakes.