فصلنامه پژوهش های تاریخی
سال نهم شماره 4 (پیاپی 36، زمستان 1396)

The Seljuk court, which inherited Divan's experiences including the court poet's organization from the Ghaznavids, at the peak of this dynasty, became a good place to grow and use the process to propagate the political goals of the sovereignty. After the collapse of the Sanjar monarchy in Khorasan, the sovereign rule of the Ildegiz dynasty in Ajams caused the emigration of the poets of this area, including Faryabi (598 AH), to western Iran. By joining the Kizil Arsalan's court (582-587 AH) and his successor Abu Bakr (588-607), the poet praised them for promoting the political views of the family, which in fact reproduced the legitimacy of their sovereignty. This paper intends to adopt a content analysis approach to the discussion of court poets’ role, with bringing into light the historical value of Faryabi’s Divan and with delving into poet’s praise in order to uncover the zeitgeist and the nature of legitimacy principles of the ruling in the era in question. Owing to enjoying religious legitimacy and sufficient authority for providing security and justice against Tugrul’s (590), Kizil Arsalan’s governance has been given legitimacy by Faryabi. In addition to having religious legitimacy, justice, appointment and authority have been raised as components of the legitimacy of Abu Bakr against his stepbrothers.

Mulla Hussein Vaez Kashefi (820 -910AD) is one of the most prominent representatives of the ninth-century Hijri intellectual-cultural movements. He has created works of great importance in various fields, such as the interaction of religion and politics. What emphasizes the importance of analyzing Kashefi's political doctrine is that he was born in one of the most important centers of the Shiites in Khorasan (Sabzevar), and at one of the most important centers of the Sunni East of Iran (Herat), with politicians and friends culture such as Sultan Abu Said Teimuri, Sultan Hussein Bayghara, Amir Alishir Nawai, and Nouraldin Abdul Rahman Jami, all of them were Sunni religious scholars. This paper, using historical research method, aims at answering the following questions: in what circumstances and with what purposes did Kashefi address the political-religious ideas? The study of historical data sets and existing knowledge showed that, based on Kashefi’s thought, politics has the same traditional meaning and the new structure is not presented in action. This concept preserves its long-standing relationship with the realm of religion, and without the policies and measures of affairs, no religious rules and the rule of durability and consistency can be realized; and with the policy and religion, the system of subsistence and rescue of people in the traditional form organizes itself. Religious thought Kashefi is a great achievement of the mixing of Sufi-Shiaic and the final stage of the evolutionary process of passing Shiism. In practice, it is the proximity of the minds of the Sunni-Sufi community to the Shiite beliefs.

The issue of Yazid's (non)interference in the murder of Imam Hussein (AS) and the emergence of the Karbala event was a point of controversy among Sunni scholars from the outset. The exoneration of Yazid from the murder of Imam also sparked this disagreement. A number of Sunni scholars, while confirming Yazid's role in the Karbala incident, for this reason and for other reasons considered him to be cursed or excommunicated. But, another group, for defending the idea of “Caliphate’s legitimacy”, exonerated Yazid and accused Ibn Ziyad instead. This seeks to elucidate Yazid's responsibility in the occurrence of the Karbala incident. For this purpose, it first examines the reasons for those who call for the exoneration of Yazid, and then considers reasons for direct role of Yazid in the martyrdom of Imam Hussein (AS) and the occurrence of the disaster of Karbala. The results of this research indicated that Yazid threatened and ultimately killed Imam Hussein (AS) with his intentions, and that his regret was secondary and dishonest.

This research seeks to understand the aspects and reasons for choosing the rulers of Kufa and dismissing them during the caliphate of Omar ibn Khattab. In so doing, one of the famous Kufa emirs Ammar ibn Yasser which was ordered by the caliphate of the time (Omar ibn Khattab) and was dismissed after one year was considered in this study. Since the reports on this issue have been distributed in a controversial and contradictory way in Islamic sources and recent studies have more descriptive approach or pay less attention to its different dimensions, more research is needed. The current library research is a historical, descriptive, and analytical study. The results of this research indicated that the social and cultural conditions governing Kufa and the Islamic society, in addition to the personality traits and administrative behavior of Ammar, and the necessity of maintaining and managing Iraq and strengthening the caliphate system, led to his appointment to Kufa. And, the following factors contributed to the removal of Ammar: Socio-political changes after the death of the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH), Arabic fanaticism and resistance to maintaining cultural-tribal traditions, the agreement between tribal leaders and aristocrats, the unity of Quraysh with the Arabic Caliphate, Ammar's relationship with Ahlulbayt (AS), his resistance to the disturbance of the tribal community, and finally the policy of the caliphate for the maintenance of the provinces. Consequently, in selecting and disposing Ammar, three factors contributed: social conditions, political systems, and different social classes.

In examining the time when communities began to dominate urbanization and civilization and the factors that led to this event, various historical and geographical schools have emphasized one of the major factors in the emergence and structure of ancient cities. In this context, the most common theories have stated the consequences of the "agricultural revolution" and "religiousism" and the religious contributions of the old people that have been the main source of the foundations of the cities. Therefore, following the verification of the veracity of these theories, by studying historical documents and archaeological findings with a library method and a descriptive approach, we found that, at least in the plateau of Iran and Mesopotamia, mankind created an agricultural revolution through a united geographical position. Then, following this revolution, the division of labor gradually took place, resulting in innovations, greater power and business relations and capital accumulation, and other factors such as religion, population, and political factors emerged in human culture and created cities. In fact, despite all these factors are not necessarily involved in the emergence and foundations of ancient cities, but considering the geographic area studied in this research geographical, economic, religious and political-military factors can be largely important and effective in the genesis and evolution of cities. And the ancient cities of Iran and Mesopotamia have had these characteristics. Of course, it should be in accordance with the above theories and emphasizing two factors of economic and religious.

The Monuments of Ghaznavids period in Ghazni, Lashkaribazar and Balkh that some of them, were partly demolished or whose names are just in literary sources, all represent the greatness of this civilization, especially during the years of the reign of Sultan Mahmud (378 to 421 AH / 988 to 1030 AD). These are a unique collection of motifs and different inscriptions that are made with different materials and techniques (for example: Marble, Brick work, tile work, stucco, etc.). In this article, the researcher tries to introduce different architectural decorations used in some monuments of Ghaznavid period and seeks to answer the question that which motifs and compositions used in the decorations? Data collection was done through historical- descriptive method based on written references and preparing pictures of reputable sites, museums, private galleries and etc. The results obtained from architectural decorations of Ghaznavid period shows that the role of Kufic inscriptions, plant motifs, geometric patterns (Knots) and animals (real and Imaginary) in these architectural decorations is very important. The content of them is based on attach, the banquet scene, moving animals, etc. that repeated in Mihrabi framing, knots in margins and backgrounds.

The term "Tarkhan" is one of the words that is repeated in the sources of Iranian middle history. In the early Islamic centuries, this term was a kind of privilege for a particular group. During the Timurid era, two titles of the Tarakhanids and Tarkhani were introduced. The question of the present research is that what happened to Tarkhan and Tarkhani's position during the Timurid period, and what was the cause of these developments? The findings of the research indicate that Tarkhan's position, which until then was attributed to the group of Turkish troops and relatives, established the nature of the Timurids in two parts of the Tarakanites and the Tarakan emblem. In the Timur and Shahrokh period, the superiority was for Tarkhanids and there was less talk of Tarkhani in historical sources. But after the death of Shahrokh and his wife (Goharshadagha), the term Tarkhanids was changed to Tarkhani. The most important reason for this development was the efforts of Timurid lords like Abdul Latif, Abu Said, and Sultan Hussein Bayqara in limiting the power of Tarkhanids. The policy has gone so far that Tarkhani position was widely accepted by commoners.

Due to the extensive territory including the fertile plains and the productive population, the Sasanids could attain the powerful and wealthy situation during the late antiquity. Nevertheless, the vast territory caused some problems regarding threatening the political integration of Iran. The eastern provinces locating far from the capital of the Sassanid government were in a very exposed position to invaders coming from Hephthalites as well-known groups of the invading nomads were considered as the main enemy of Sassanid in the eastern Iran. Hephthalites could occasionally determine the international relationships between Iran and its neighbours. Moreover, they played an important role in the formation of the cultural and artistic practices of the eastern Sassanid. In order to recognise the Hephthalites’ influence on the Sassanid Iran, we need firstly to study their ethnical attributes and lifestyles and secondly to know the borders of their territory throughout history. In pursuing these purposes, the paper, while relying on the historical documents, would explain the history of Hephthalites in eastern Iran and describe their material cultures indicating their history and culture. Synchronised study of history, geography, and material culture of the Hephthalites would help us to introduce a new approach to history and archaeology of the eastern Iran in Sassanid period.

With bounding the borders of Iran and Rome at the time of Parthian Mithradates II (124-87 BC), a frequent confrontation started between the two superpowers in order to achieve important bordering areas, especially Armenia. This confrontation led to sign a peace treaty called Rhandeia in 63 AD. According to treaty a branch of the Parthian Royal family (Arshakuni dynasty) took the power in Armenia on the condition of verification and commitment the Roman Empire. The success of the Parthian in investing the kingdom of Armenia to prince of their family, and starting Arshakuni dynasty of Armenia, led to irritate Rome later, because this treaty apparently had put an end to the issue of Armenia in favor of Rome, but indeed it was in favor of Iran so that The Romans were seeking an opportunity to reclaim the lost benefits in Rhandeia Treaty, and the chance was taken in the era of Traian, the power full Roman emperor. The result of this study reveals that the invasion of Traian in the early second century AD, was formed after the failure of Rome from Rhandeia Treaty. Although at first his campaign was successful and could capture Armenia and Mesopotamia, but following that, Parthian defeated Romans by their own way of war and escaped. Hence once again Parthian could gain their impact on this important area, although the tension between the two superpowers and Romans lasted to the end of this dynasty on capturing Armenia.

Riots, in fact a remonstrative reaction to unfavorable conditions of the society, occur for different reasons, the recognition of which will help us to better understand social life of people and retrieve their social history. The riots occurred during Safavid era is no exception, especially that except in few cases, in the historiography of this era, the social life of people and inferiors are largely ignored. The riots of the people of Guilan at the beginning of Shah Safi’s era, known as Qarib Shah’s Riot, are important examples of inferiors’ riots. In this research, the factors influencing riots will be considered. The study is based on two types of reports and documents: one, the reports presented by Safavid historians and the other theories and analysis by contemporary researchers. Close study of reports show that the riot of Guilan at the beginning of Shah Safi era is not specifically a protest to Shah Safi governance; instead it is grounded in Shah Abbas period. The main reasons of the riots are the methods Guilan province was governed, pressures put on people to pay different types of tax, etc. These in turn endangered the economic security of Guilan people during Shah Abbas period. The method of research is descriptive-analytical; in which historical reports, documents, and analysis presented by the researchers.

In harmony with Nishapur's agriculture and trade throughout the 3rd to 6th centuries AH, its industries enjoyed considerable prosperity. For knowing the number, quality, and development of these industries, we can benefit from the two categories of works: literary sources and archaeological discoveries of historical sites of Nishapur. The information obtained from each of these two categories, individually, will only clarify the limited angles of the city's industries, and a separate piece of them will render the research about this issue fruitless and incomplete. But, with integrating the data obtained from both, a significant part of the information gap of each one is eliminated. After the introduction of Nishapur’s important industries in this period, this paper attempts, with using descriptive-analytical methods and combining both information, to study boom and recession of them in Nishapur. Results indicated that knitting, pottery, metalworking and glassblowing were, respectively, the most important industries of Nishapur in this period. The third to sixth centuries, especially the second half of the sixth century, respectively, were the peak of the industrial boom and the relative decline of the city.

Ilkhanate government was formed in Iran after the decision of the central court of Mongol and dispatch of Hulagu to the West in a historical process and subject to the evolutions of the central court and military and political actions of Hulagu Khan. Although, Hulagu’s expedition to west was aimed to establish the rule of Mongols in the conquered lands and conquering new areas, no objective such as forming the Ilkhanate kingdom in Iran had not been set as the goal of his mission, but the changes in Mongol empire after the death of Mango Qa’an and competitive rivalry to sit on the Khanate throne which finally belonged to Qa’an Khubilai, lead to relations based on mutual interests between the two brothers from Toloi family; that is, Khubilai and Hulagu.On the one hand, Khubilai got the support of Hulagu against his competitors, and thus he was directed by Hulagu Khan, as one of the most powerful barbaric families toward the idea of changing the conquered regions of Iran to their ancient form of khanates and Khubilai’s confirmation led to the formation of a successive rule in the territory. However, due to internal developments in Mongol empire and its geographical structure these matters were not that much noticeable in local and regional equations, but due to some political and social characteristics and the nature of the Ilkanate government, the confirmation of central court had importance until the rise of Muslim Mongol ruler in establishing the legitimacy of the Ilkhanate rulers and his successors challenges. Hence, the present study adopts such an approach using quantitative and qualitative methods and based on library documents examines the role and effect of Ilkhanate and the central court on the issue of succession

The political power of Ghurids is recognized during the governance era of Shansabaneyah dynasty. They have ruled from 401 to 612 AH after which their successors ruled in Indian subcontinent for long years. The current study conducts a descriptive-analytical investigation in the field of historical literature in order to assess and evaluate the causes of longevity in political and military power of Ghurids and their political establishment in the eastern lands of the Islamic Caliphate. Results of this study demonstrated that these factors in turn contributed to the long-term sustainability Ghurids. Offensive and defensive power of Ghurids, geographic spread, the relative popularity of Shansabaneyah among Ghurids, financial and economic power of Ghurids, their conversion to Islam, the support from Abbasid Caliphate, the governance of the family, the presence of multiple centers and the circumstances surrounding were among the most important factors.

The Caucasus is a religiously important region as it has been the pathway of different cults, beliefs, creeds, and sects throughout history. Since ancient times, this region has had deep religious as well as historical links with Iran. After the advent of Islam, the new religion tried to spread over the entire Caucasus, but the people there resisted embracing the new faith. At last, however, the people in some parts of Caucasia converted to Sunnis, and in this way, Islam became one of the religions in the Caucasus, along with Christianity in Georgia and Armenia. Due to its unique geographical location, the Caucasus was one of the disputed areas between the Safavids and the Ottomans. The Safavid government and the Ottoman government made efforts to increase their influence in the region. On the one hand, the Ottoman government tried to put pressure on the Safavid government from the north under the pretext of supporting the Sunnis in Shervan, Daghestan, and other regions with Sunni populations, and with encouragement from their relationships with the Crimea dynasty. On the other hand, the Safavid government tried to promote Shiism, and to penetrate into the regions with Sunni populations, and promulgate their religious tenets under the pretext of engaging a holy war against the Christian infidels. Although both governments claimed that they were motivated solely by a desire for fighting against the Christian infidels, there were other hidden motives for their actions, and the present study deals with the undeclared motives and the challenges arising from them in an analytical manner.

The development of the international economy and the growth of capitalist relations in Iran have affected economic and social spheres of the country which are, to some extent, influenced by the developments in the west and the global system in the nineteenth century. Dependence on the needs of the global market led to the growth of commercial agriculture and the export of raw materials. The profitability of the sale of commercial agricultural products led to the importance of land and owner of a property, and the tendency of different classes to land. In this research, we try to use descriptive-analytical method and archival documents, while studying the impact of commercialization of agriculture as one of the reasons for the growth of private property in the northern states of Iran during the Qajar period. The study seek to answer the question that “What is the effect of the development of the relations of mastery in the lives of farmers in this area?”. After reviewing and analyzing data and documents, it was concluded that commercialization of agriculture leads to the tendency of some classlessness of society, including traders, state officials and even foreigners to invest in the lands of Mazandaran and Guilan. By entering these individuals into the owner class of society, private property grew and as a result, many native farmers were without land. These new owners, with the expansion of master-farming relations, found this power to intervene in the field of agriculture, commercial properties, ownership of water resources water resources and land taxes, and to harass farmers and exploit them to create a turbulent atmosphere in northern states.