نشریه پژوهشهای زراعی ایران
سال پانزدهم شماره 3 (پیاپی 47، پاییز 1396)

IntroductionBuckwheat which has been scientifically named Fagopyrum esculentum can be considered as a yearling broad-leaved plant belonging to the family of Polygonaceae which is known as false Cereal. Its seeds are in use as a nutritional and medicinal product that is due to the rutin content of them. As the population is rapidly increasing worldwide, a solution must be found to supply necessary food. What agriculture science is responsible for is to produce more products with better quality in order to meet this increasing population’s needs so that food poverty and starvation are more likely to be removed and keep food safety. Considering the fact that buckwheat is of a variety of medical, industrial and food applications and in our country and some other ones, it has not been seriously cultivated, this plant must be used as a new plant and it should be extensively applied in multiple planting systems (summer planting) for commercial goals through producing seeds while its nutritional value is more than grain and it can be regarded as a rich source of high quality protein, amino acid necessary for lysine, high starch percent, minerals and vitamins for different applications involving cake flour, frumenty and soup and improving the optimal rate of rutin as a secondary metabolite having effective medical features concerning our country’s climatic conditions.
Materials and MethodsIn order to investigate the effects of sowing date, planting patterns and nitrogen on leaf and flower rutin, yield and yield component of Buckwheat plant, a field study was conducted during 2010 and 2011 in Agricultural Research Institute of Arak, Iran. The experimental design was regarded as the randomized complete block design in the form of split plot factorial with three replications. Planting treatments as the fundamental elements may be implemented at two levels including the mounds with the width of 50 cm associated with two planting rows regarding the distance intervals of 20 cm (P1) and those with the width of 60 cm along with three planting rows which are of the distance intervals of 15 cm (P2). Sowing date and nitrogen treatments were considered as the minor elements are likely to be studied at four levels of dates and weights involving 20th June (D1), 5th July (D2), 20th July (D3) and 5th August (D4) and 0 (N1), 50 (N2), 100 (N3) and 150 kg ha-1 (N4), respectively. With respect to the fixed density of 100 plants per square meter, the distances between the planting lines were specified as four and five cm for treatments of P1 and P2, respectively. Dimensions of each plot for the planting patterns of P1 and P2 have been determined as 1.6×2 and 1.6×2.4 m consisting of four planting rows.
Results and DiscussionResults showed that the interaction effects of sowing date×planting pattern × nitrogen were significant on grain yield and 1000- grain weight (p≤0.05). the number of seeds in plant, leaf and flower rutin percent also were significant (p≤0.01). But, number of bunch in the plant were non significantly. Maximum grain yield with 2857 kgha-1, 1000- grain weight (29.28 g), and number of the seeds in the plant 434.1 was observed P2D3N3. The highest of number of bunch in the plant with 33.20 was produced P2D2N3. Maximum leaf rutin percent with 1.01 was observed to P2D2N4 treatment also highest flower rutin percent (1.36%) observed to P1D3N3 treatment. The lowest rates of grain yield as 1074 kg ha-1, 1000- grain weight as (23.96 g), number of bunch in the plant (11.72), number of seeds (60.18), leaf rutin (0.14%) and flower rutin (0.30%) have been found for the treatments of P1D3N1, P2D4N2, P2D4N2, P1D4N2, P2D2N1, P2D3N2.
ConclusionsIf application of this plant is just for grain consumption, the treatment P2D3N3 to produce active substances as a medicinal plant should be considered. For the extraction rutin leaves P2D4N4 treatment and flower P1D3N3 treatment is suitable for extraction rutin.

IntroductionNitrogen (N) is the most important input in many Iranian cropping systems and applying the optimal amount of N in the right place at the right time is a significant challenge for wheat growers. Previous research results indicated that nitrogen fertilization can increase the use of soil moisture, which lead to increase of wheat grain yield in dryland area. Heat and drought stress are the most environmental factors that cause significant yield and quality reduction of dryland wheat by disruption of plant metabolism. Although these stresses, in most cases, are impossible to control, farmers can reduce their unfavorable effects by optimizing nitrogen fertilizer applications. Nitrogen use efficiency in different wheat genotypes depends on plant characteristics such as root system distribution, plant growth stages, plant nutrient requirements, soil moisture and temperature, soil nutrient content and nutrient interactions, some of these factors can be improved by nitrogen fertilizer management. Recently, the use of 15N in soil-plant systems is a great help to identify the actual uptake of nutrients from fertilizers. This technique determine nitrogen rate and application times, 15N derived from fertilizers , 5N use efficiency, fate of N residuals in soil profile and N accumulation and redistribution in plant organs exactly. In addition, many other new indices have been identified with high sensitivity to changes nitrogen status in plant such as remote sensing techniques. These indices are capable of higher accuracy and easy identification of nitrogen status in plant for instance insufficient, sufficient and excessive conditions. The most important of these indicators can be cited nitrogen stress index (NSI). There are high negative correlations between yield and grain components and are also high significant positive correlations among nitrogen uptake, nitrogen status in plant and plant relative chlorophyll meter (RCM). Therefore, nitrogen stress index (NSI) can identify the critical periods of nitrogen stress in dryland wheat that provide reasonable recommendations for the lifting of nitrogen nutrition restrictions.
Materials and MethodsTo determine effect of rates and times of nitrogen applications on the production and nitrogen status of dryland wheat, this study was conducted as split-split plot design based on randomized complete block design with three replications as which 15N application times (fall, 2/3 in fall and 1/3 in spring) were assigned to the main plots and N rates were arranged to the sub plot (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha-1), and 7 wheat genotypes to the sub-sub plots (Azar2, Ohadi, Rasad and 4 other genotypes as genotype1 to genotype4) in three replications in Dryland Agricultural Research Institute (DARI) during 2011-12 cropping seasons. In three elongation (ZGS32), flowering (ZGS64) and maturity (ZGS87) stages, we determined wheat dry matter accumulation and nitrogen concentration. Nitrogen stress index (NSI) was calculated by plant N concentration and dry matter using Data fit 9 software. Plant chlorophyll content also was measured in the three upper developed leaves randomly in each plot by chlorophyll meter (SPAD-Hansatech, Cl-01 model) in three mentioned steps. Total nitrogen and 15N/14N isotopic ratio was determined in grain and straw by mass spectrometry method.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed that nitrogen application time had no significant effect on yield and nitrogen uptake parameters. But, nitrogen application significantly increased dry matter (2052 kg ha-1), grain yield (1053 kg ha-1), biological yield (3403 kg ha-1), nitrogen uptake (21.8%), nitrogen uptake from fertilizer (10.3%), 15N% in plant (1.75 atom percent), N derived from fertilizers (21.9%), nitrogen stress index (0.3) and grain protein content (1.3) on average. Application of N60 was suitable rate to reduce nitrogen stress and optimal production of dryland wheat genotypes. Azar2 was the most desirable genotype while genotype1 and genotype2 were inappropriate genotypes in this respect.
ConclusionsThe nitrogen stress index (NSI) and 15N derived from fertilizers (%Ndff) were the best indices to determine nitrogen status and nitrogen application times and rates for dryland wheat genotypes. The nitrogen status in plant was an effective factor for increase of grain protein.

IntroductionSoybean (Glycin max L.) is one of the most important oilseed crops in the world. It can provide oil and vegetable protein suitable for feeding humans as well as animals. The productivity Increasing of this crop in Iran has been the subject of continuous investigation over the past few years. It is well known that adequate water supply is considered as a very important factor to affect the accumulation of dry matter in the plant as well as vegetative growth of most crops. Irrigation is an important factor affecting soybean growth and yield and its related components. Exposing soybean plants to soil moisture stress at any phase of its life cycle may lead to a detrimental effect on growth, yield and its components. The methanol spraying can lead to increase in yield, expediting in maturity and reduction in drought stress impacts and water requirement of crops.
Material and MethodsThe experiment was conducted as split plots based on randomized complete block design with three replications at the Research Farm, Faculty of Agriculture of Moghan, Iran, in 2011. Treatments included three levels of drought stress as follows irrigation after, 40 (control), 55 and 70 percentage of available soil moisture depletion as main plots, and four levels of methanol spraying including 0 (control), 7, 21 and 35 volumetric percentage as sub plots. The studied traits were included plant height, leaf area, number of pod and seed per plant, 1000 seed weight, biological and seed yield, stomatal conductance and proline contents. Statistical analysis was carried out using SAS version 9.1 software. Significant difference was set at p ≤ 0.05 by using Duncan’s multiple range test.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the plant height, leaf area, number of pod and seed per plant, 1000 seed weight, biological and seed yield, stomatal conductance and proline contents as well as number of leaf per plant significantly affected by drought stress and methanol spraying. By increasing drought stress, proline content increased, while other traits were decreased and 70 percentage of available soil moisture depletion decreased the seed yield by 51.2%over than the control. With increasing of methanol spraying to 21 of volumetric percentage, all the investigate traits, except the proline content increased and increasing the volumetric percentage methanol more than it, was reduces them. The maximum amounts of quantity traits and stomatal conductance of soybean obtained at 21 volumetric percentage of methanol spraying, and the seed yield of this treatment was 25.6%higher than the control . These results are in agreement with those obtained by Purmousavi et al., (2009), Ruhul Amin et al., (2009), Shahmoradi et al., (2009) and Ibrahim and Kandil, (2007), who found that deficit irrigation, caused a significant decrease in yield and yield components of soybean. In general, irrigation decreasing may be lead to reducing photosynthesis activity and induce imbalanced relations between plant hormones and biological processes in the plant organs as a whole. These conditions in the treated soil are undoubtedly of great importance throughout the vegetative growth and dry matter accumulation in soybean plants. Drought stress reduces leaf size, stem extension and root proliferation; it disturbs plant water relations as well as dry matter production (Farooq et al., 2009).
ConclusionsIn general, the results of experiment showed that the maximum amounts of quantitative traits, stomatal conductance and proline content of soybean, obtained by 21 volumetric percentage of methanol spraying and by this treatment, the seed yield was 25.6 % higher than control.

IntroductionImproving of nutrients absorption by biological approaches, in addition to emphasis on sustainable agriculture, will increase or stabilize crop yield. It seems that microorganisms such as mycorrhiza and rhizobium can improve the nutrients absorption in crops such as chickpea. Rhizobiums are effective to provide biological nitrogen for crops and mycorrhizal fungi are involved to supply biological phosphorus to the plants. Among them, the endo myccorihza (or Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) that is abbreviated VAM, in creation of symbiosis with the roots of crops such as legumes have been more successful. Of course, the mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobium bacteria before creating symbiosis with host plant, directly affect in the overlay in rhizosphere environment of host plant. Creating colonies in the roots by mycorrhizal fungi leads to conducive for forming nodulation of rhizobium. In other words, mycorrhiza fungi creats favorable conditions for the production of rhizobium nodules on the roots and also they affect on greater availability of phosphorus for nitrogenase enzymes involved in rhizobium bacteria. In contrast, rhizobiums affect in better absorption of nitrogen and followed by the synthesis of amino acids and amino acid availability for required mycorrhiza. It seems that this symbiotic relationship between plants, mycorrhizal and rhizobium can be either normal or adverse environmental conditions, which is effective in promoting the product of crop. However, the Triplet symbiosis of chickpea, mycorrhiza and rhizobium and also chickpea genotypes response to this symbiosis should be examined.
Materials and MethodsThis study was conducted to investigate the inoculation of kabuli seeds of chickpea genotypes with arbuscular mycorrhiza and like - endomycorhiza, in 2014, in split plot by arrangement of two factors with a randomized complete block design and three replications in Research Field, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Main plots were consisted of three levels of mycorhiza (arbuscular mycorhiza of Glomus mosseae, like - endo mycorhiza of Piriformospora indica and non - used mycorhiza) and sub plots were consisted of nine genotypes of chickpea: MCC 80, MCC 358, MCC 361, MCC 392, MCC 427, MCC 537, MCC 693, MCC 696 and MCC 950. (These genotypes had good yield potentials and selection and presented in the studies on germplasm from the Institute of Plant Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad seed bank). All seeds of genotypes were infected to the symbiotic rhizobium bacteria of chickpea. In the mid - flowering the content elements of nitrogen, phosphor, potassium and micro elements of iron, zinc, copper and manganese were determined by kjeldahl, spectrophotometer, flame photometer and the atomic absorption, respectively.
Results and DiscussionThe results indicated that mycorrhiza significantly increased seed yield. But using of like - endomycorhiza was not effective to increase seed yield. In other words, superiority of like - endomycorhiza was not significant. Among the genotypes in this study, the highest seed yield was dedicated to genotype of MCC 537. Arbuscular mycorhiza significantly improved the uptake of N, P, K, Fe and Mn, but it did not imposed any significant effect on uptake of Cu and Zn. Genotypes of MCC 537, MCC 427, MCC 80 and MCC 392 significantly were excelled in uptake of macro elements, but there is not significant difference to uptake of micro elements. In the study was observed the interactions effects between mycorrhizal and chickpea genotypes that the highest seed yield belonged to the factor of arbuscular mycorrhiza – MCC 537 genotype. Also the most uptaked nitrogen and protein of plant tissues belonged to the factor of arbuscular mycorrhiza – MCC 537 genotype. But other interactions effects were not significant. In addition, in traits of uptaked nitrogen and protein of plant tissues in factor of arbuscular mycorrhiza – MCC 427 genotype was in a same statistical class with factor of arbuscular mycorrhiza – MCC 537 genotype.
ConclusionsApplication of mycorrhiza along with rhizobium could improve the uptake of macro and micro elements in chickpea genotypes. But, application of like - endomycorrhiza had not significant effect on the absorption of nutrients in chickpea. In a general conclusion, among the studied genotypes, MCC 537 and MCC 427 were better than the others.

IntroductionAgriculture depends heavily on nitrogen which is biologically fixed through the symbiotic association between rhizobia and legume plants in nodules located on plant roots. Alfalfa is a legume that should fix most of its own N requirement if it is sufficiently nodulated by viable Rhizobium meliloti inoculums. The process of nitrogen fixation is done by the help of an enzyme called nitrogenase and molybdenum which is an important element in the formation of this compound. Molybdenum is required by plants for protein synthesis and is especially important for legumes as it is needed for nitrogen fixation by rhizobia. Therefore the following research was done aimed on studying the effect of different amount of molybdenum and S. rhizobium bacteria on alfalfa’s yield.
Material and MethodsAlfalfa (Medicago sativa) were grown in a field. The experiment was conducted at Karaj in 2013 in split plot arrangement based on completely randomized block design (RCBD), including 2 caring S. rhizobium inoculated seed and non-inoculated) as the main plot factor)and 3 levels of Molybdenum (0,5,10 kg ha-1) from ammonium molybdate (as the sub plot factor) in three replications. Sinorhizobium meliloti bacteria were cultured on plates. Then half of the seeds were inoculated by Sinorhizobium meliloti. Nitrogen fertilizer was added only in one stage before planting up to 50 kg per hectare. Plants were grown until flowering. The data were analyzed by the SAS (9.1) software and mean comparisons were done by Duncan's MRT at the 1% and 5% probability level.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed the effect of different levels of molybdenum and S. Rhizobium bacteria on dry matter yield, molybdenum concentrations in shoots and roots and the number of root nodules was significant. This treatment was significant in comparison to the control treatment with the14.27 ton per hectare.
Increasing of molybdenum application, led to increasing of root nodules and showed a meaningful difference from non-inoculated. Concentration of molybdenum in shoot and root increased, this increase in S. Rhizobium inoculated case was more than non-inoculated cases.
ConclusionsThe use of molybdenum and Rhizobium bacteria increase the production yield and also nitrogen-fixing nodules. The increase in the use of treatments with molybdenum, resulting biological nitrogen fixation leading to conversion of molecular nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere into ammonium (NH3) in nodules on the roots of plants. Studies have showed that molybdenum important role in nitrogen fixation in legume family of plants, and adding this element increased growth by increasing the efficiency of nitrogen fixation and nitrogenase enzyme in the node structure, which ultimately will lead to increased yield and higher quality in alfalfa. Thus, molybdenum increased the number of branches of the fertile and increase the number of stem and leaf.
Molybdenum is essential to plant growth as a component of the enzymes nitrogenase. Legumes need more molybdenum than other crops, such as grass or corn, because the symbiotic bacteria living in the root nodules of legumes require molybdenum for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. If sufficient molybdenum is not available, nodulation will be retarded and the amount of nitrogen fixed by the plant will be limited. If other factors are not limiting, the amount of molybdenum will determine the amount of nitrogen fixed by the plant. Increasingly vigorous plant growth, higher protein contents and greater buildup of nitrogen in the plant and soil accompany nodulation and symbiotic microbial activity. Therefore, due to less absorption of molybdenum in the shoot and the highest yield obtained from treated seeds inoculated with the first level of molybdenum, the amount kg ha-1. Molybdenum is suitable for growing of alfalfa. It is important to obtain maximum yield in just one stage (before the first two weeks of growth) for the supply of nitrogen for growth, nitrogen from urea at the rate of 50 kg ha-1added to soil, excessive consumption of nitrogen fertilizers can impair the activity of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in nodules, and plant dependence to nitrate chemical, then the yield will not increase.

IntroductionCrop models are the most important components of ecological models. These models could provide the possibility of crop systems prediction in addition to increase the understanding of their performance. Allometric relationships of plants show changes of growth of one part in comparison to other parts of the plant. Determine the appropriate plant density in crops, especially wheat has the high importance which affects some characteristics such as yield and yield component. This affects varies in different stages of plant growth.
Materials and MethodsThis research has been done in research station of Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources (37,45N, 54,30E and 120m above sea level) in the growing season of 2012-13. The experiment was conducted in a factorial experiment with randomized complete block design with four replications as base. Treatments consisted of two wheat cultivars (Koohdasht and Morvarid) and 7 plant densities (50, 100, 200, 350, 500, 650, 800 seed.m2). Each replication consisted of 14 plots and each plot had 10 rows with length of 5 m, width of 2 m and a row spacing of 20 cm. Plot distances from each other was 40 cm and block distances was 1 m to each other. Measurements were done from tillering to the end of the growing every 7 to 10 days (depending on weather conditions). Cumulative thermal units were calculated using GDD_Calc program. Power model and non-liner segmented regression model were used to describe allometric relationships.
Results and DiscussionFor fitting equations related to leaf area versus days after planting, coefficient of determination was 0.73 and root mean square error ranged between 0.37 and 0.77 which revealed that the logistic model could well describe increasing leaf area during the time. There is a significant effect for a, b and c coefficients in different plant density of wheat and increasing density could lead to -the increasing coefficient and decreasing the a and b coefficients. In addition, regarding the relationship between leaf area and number of leaves in different plant density, coefficient of determination values greater than 0.87 and ranges of root mean square error between 9.65 and 24.39, belong to the plant densities of 800 and 50, respectively, which showed a good correlation between leaf area per plant and the numbers of leaves. In this regard, b coefficient has a significant difference in various wheat density.
The relationship between leaf area and green leaf dry weight coefficient of determination greater than 0.78 and the root mean square error between 31.44 and 17.68, respectively belong to plant density of 350 and 100 with no significant difference in b coefficient. In connection with the relationship between leaf area and plant height, coefficient of determination greater than 0.85 and the root mean square error between 9.29 and 21.13 cm.m-2.plant-1 respectively belong to plant density of 800 and 200. We found a significant difference in b coefficient and decrease about 0.0003 unit with increasing plant density.
ConclusionsThe results of relation between leaf area of each plant with the number of leaves in main stem, dry weight of green leaf and plant height showed good allometirc correlation until booting stage (0.87, 0.78 and 0.85, respectively). In addition, significant effects were investigated for correlation between leaf area of each plant and the number of leaves and plant height, however, correlation between leaf area of each plant and dry weight of green leaf area of plant was not significant.

IntroductionIntercropping is one of the most effective approaches for developing sustainable agriculture which causes control of soil erosion, decreasing usage of agrochemicals, increasing biodiversity, yield in area unit, quantity and quality of the product and it finally makes stability in agronomical ecosystems. Many researchers consider the multiple cropping as the most important factor for increasing the diversity of cultures in agricultural ecosystems. Increasing crop diversity through intercropping can be effective to improve the ecological functions and ecosystem services.
The aim of this study was to determine the best pattern of wheat and canola intercropping based on yield and nutrition use efficiency.
Materials and MethodsIn order to study the effects of intercropping on yield and nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiency, a field experiment was conducted as randomized complete block design (RCBD) at Agricultural Research Station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, during 2012-2013 growing season. Experimental treatments were included planting patterns of wheat (Alvand and Falat cultivars) and canola (Ocapy and Zarfam cultivars) intercropping with ratios of 1:1, 2:2, 3:3 and sole cropping of them with three replications. The size of each plot was 6 m2 and distance between plots and blocks were 0.5 and 1 m, respectively. Planting of wheat and canola cultivars were done with densities of 320 and 80 plant per m2, respectively, at the same time.
Nitrogen content of plant was determined by microkejeldal machine and wet digestion method. Phosphorus content was measured by spectrophotometer machine and Olsen method. Land equivalent ratio (LER) was used to evaluate the advantage of the intercropping. Analysis of variance was done with SAS ver 9.1 software and means were compared with Duncan’s test at the 5% level of probability.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the highest economical yield was obtained from sole cropping of Alvand (4199.77 kg ha1). Treatment of Alvand-Ocapy intercropping (3:3) had the highest economical yield within different patterns of intercropping. The highest and lowest biological yield of wheat were revealed from sole cropping of Alvand and Falat-Zarfam intercropping (2:2), respectively. The sole cropping of Ocapy and Falat-Zarfam intercropping (2:2) had the highest (4034.54 kg ha-1) and lowest (1691.98 kg ha1) economical yield of canola. The highest and lowest amounts of canola biological yield were obtained from sole cropping of Ocapy and Falat-Zarfam intercropping (2:2), respectively. Land equivalent ratio (LER) in all different patterns of intercropping was more than one which shows advantage of the intercropping. The highest LER was obtained from Alvand-Ocapy intercropping (3:3). The highest nitrogen and phosphorus physiological efficiency were observed in sole cropping of Falat cultivar (wheat) and in the case of canola was obtained from Falat-Zarfam intercropping (2:2). The sole cropping of Alvand and Alvand-Ocapy intercropping (3:3) had the highest use efficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. The highest amount of nitrogen and phosphorus uptake was obtained from Alvand- Ocapy intercropping (3:3) and sole cropping of Ocapy (respectively, for wheat and canole).
ConclusionsThe results of this study indicated that treatment of Alvand- Ocapy intercrroping (3:3) had the highest economical yield, land equivalent ratio and also the highest amount of nitrogen and phosphorus uptake. This planting pattern can be suggested to obtain proper yield of wheat and canola as well as appropriate amount of nitrogen and phosphorus uptake.

IntroductionSoil organic matters impose direct and indirect effect on crop production through providing of nutrients and also improvement of soil physical condition and stimulation of plant growth. It also seems that plant production based on application of organic fertilizers is more stable than application of chemical fertilizers. So, there has been lots of attention from agronomists, ecologists and consumers toward organic fertilizers. In organic farming, agricultural ecosystem is considered as a living thing and integrated totality, so in this system, soil, crop, microorganisms and micro-climate affect on each other and also are under the effect of each other. For better performance of this system, each component should be in its appropriate condition. Periodical reverse of organic matter to soil and crop rotation will improve biological and physical characteristics of soil. However, balance of nutrients in organic matter which is available for plant is important because causes less dependence to chemical fertilizers. Indeed, nutrients balance is more important than application of chemical fertilizers that can lead to water pollution and decreasing quality of food products. Application of chemical fertilizers caused considerable increasing of farmer's income in last decade. These fertilizers also imposed ecological and environmental problems. In Iran like most of the countries, overusing of chemical inputs like fertilizers has caused destruction of water and soil resources. In addition, leaching of soluble chemical fertilizers specially nitrogen fertilizers has caused pollution of drinking water and overfilling of the water of lakes and ponds in some regions. So researchers have done a lot of effort to replace organic and biological fertilizers with chemical one. The aim of this experiment was to study the effect of organic fertilizers on safflower production.
Materials and MethodsIn order to evaluate the effect of organic fertilizers and two different application dates of them on safflower an experiment was conducted at Islamic Azad University of Shirvan, Iran, in growing season of 2012-2013 and 2013-2014. Date of first application was two month prior of planting and date of second application was simultaneous with planting. Amounts of vermicompost included 4, 7 and 10 ton ha-1, municipal solid waste compost included 5, 10 and 15 ton ha-1, cow manure included 20, 33 and 50 ton ha-1, nitrogen chemical fertilizer included 100 kg ha-1 and control. Experiment was conducted as split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications. Application time of organic fertilizers located in main plots and each one of organic fertilizers levels with nitrogen fertilizer and control as a independent treatment located in subplots. Required rates of different fertilizers were scattered by hand into the plots on 20th Feb then no operation was done until April 21th. On April 21th, main plots which should have been applied fertilization simultaneous with planting were received fertilizers. At this time, all of the plot which have been received fertilizers on Feb 20th plus plots which received fertilizers recently were planted simultaneously. Data were combined analyzed by MSTAT-C software and means were compared with Duncan’s test at the 5% level of probability.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed that in first growing season, fertilizer application before planting caused 12% yield increment of safflower compared with fertilizer application at planting time but in second growing season, fertilizer application at the time of planting caused 12.8% yield increment of safflower compared with fertilizer application before planting. Enough time for manure decomposition can be the reason for this difference. In first year in fertilizer application before planting, all treatments except 10 ton h-1 municipal solid waste compost produced more seed yield than control and chemical fertilizer treatments. In fertilizer application at planting time, chemical fertilizer treatment produced the highest seed yield compared with other treatments. The faster availability of nitrogen chemical fertilizer is the reason for more seed yield in this treatment compared with organic fertilizers. In second year in fertilizer application before planting all treatments except 4 ton h-1 vermicompost and 15 ton h-1 municipal solid waste compost produced more seed yield compared with control and chemical fertilizer treatments but in fertilizer application at planting time chemical fertilizer, 4 and 7 ton h-1 vermicompost showed higher seed yield.
ConclusionsAccording to the results of this experiment, using 5 ton h-1 municipal solid waste compost before planting is the best treatment to use in safflower production in northern Khorasan.

IntroductionIntercropping is a kind of multi-culture system where two or more plants are cultivated in a piece of land simultaneously. The aim of intercropping is optimizing the use of space, time and physical resources in both the top and under of the soil surface through maximizing positive relationship and minimizing negative relationship between the components of agricultural ecosystems. In intercropping due to better use of available resources such as land, labor, time, light, water and nutrients, as well as reducing damages caused by pests and diseases and socio-economic advantages, increase in production per unit area can be expected. In this study, yield and yield components of sesame and bean in additive and replacement intercropping with mixed and row planting type was evaluated and the possible advantages of intercropping to monoculture as well as the types of intercropping were compared.
Materials and MethodsThis experiment was conducted in Agricultural Research Station of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, located in 10 kilometers south-east of the city of Mashhad, Iran (latitude 36° 17′ N, longitude 59° 35′ E and 985 m elevation) in 2013 and 2014. Climate of the area is cold and dry. A Split-Plot experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications was used with the factor of cropping system (as main plot) and intercropping proportions (as sub plot). The cropping system was included; mixed and row cropping and intercropping proportions were included; monoculture of bean (100b), 25% sesame- 75% bean (25s75b), 50% sesame- 50% bean (50s50b), 75% sesame- 25% bean (75s25b), monoculture of sesame (100s), 10% bean- 100% sesame (10b100s), 20% bean- 100% sesame (20b100s), 30% bean- 100% sesame (30b100s), 100% bean- 10% sesame (100b10s), 100% bean- 20% sesame (100b20s), and 100% bean- 30% sesame (100b30s). Planting was done using common varieties of the region (Esfarayen and Derakhshan varieties for sesame and bean, respectively). Hand-weeding method was used for controlling weeds. The first was done when most plants were, in the 6 leaf stage and in the height about 15cm, continued every 13 days until the growth of the canopy limited the growth of weeds. There was not used any fertilizer during the growing season. At the end of the growing season traits such as 1000 seed weight, number of capsules or pods per plant, number of seeds per capsule or pod, biological yield, seed yield and harvest index were recorded. In addition, the land equivalent ratio (LER) was calculated to determine the advantages of intercropping. Analysis of variance and Duncan's mean comparison were used for statistical analysis.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed that intercropping had a significant effect on all traits, in sesame and bean. 1000 seed weigh, number of capsules or pods per plant, number of seeds per capsule or pod and harvest index in the treatments of 25s75b, 50s50b and 75s25b, were the highest amounts. Number of seed per plant, seed yield and harvest index in sesame and 1000 seed weight, biological yield and seed yield in bean were affected by planting type which row planting had higher value than mixed planting. This can be due to better use of resources and avoid inter and intra species competition, in the circumstances stated above. The results showed that the total LER, LER of sesame, and LER of bean were higher in replacement intercropping planting than mixed planting. In addition, replacement intercropping had better performance in total LER, LER of sesame, and LER of bean, to additive intercropping. Also, total LER was more than 1 which highest values were observed in the treatments of 25s75b, 50s50b, 30s100b, 75s25b, 100s 30b and 10s100b (1.22, 1.19, 1.15, 1.15 and 1.14, respectively). It seems that better utilize of the growth resource in the inter cropping led to reach this result. The results showed that presence of bean in intercropping had positive effects on sesame, so that the symbiosis of bean roots with nitrogen-fixing bacteria could be the main reason.
ConclusionsIn general, the results showed that seed yield of sesame and bean in monoculture were higher than other combinations of intercropping; However higher LER was observed in the treatments of intercropping. This shows more exploitation of unit area in intercropping. In addition, greater amount of LER in replacement intercropping than additive intercropping highlights the necessity of appropriate density of plants per unit area in the intercropping. Also row planting showed better performance compared with mixed planting that suggests the effect of planting correct arrangement for further exploitation of resources in the intercropping.

IntroductionNitrogen availability is an important limiting factor in low input farming systems which reduces the system productivity. Therefore, in organic farming systems, use of legume plants and composted fertilizers is crucial for balancing crop growth and nutrient demands. Biological N fixing by legume plants depends on plant morphology, density and competitive ability. In mixed intercropping, especially in arid region, crop mixed with legume plants is important in terms of cop quality and soil fertility.
Materials and MethodsTo determine the best combination of mixed intercropping of barley and fenugreek, an experiment was conducted as split plot based on randomized complete block design in Ramin Agriculture and Natural Resources University of Khouzestan, at 2014-15 growing seasons. In this study, composted manure levels (zero, 12, 24 and 36 ton ha-1) were investigated in main plots, and mixed intercropping proportions (100% barley, 75% barley 25% fenugreek, 50 % barley 50% fenugreek, 25% barley% fenugreek, 100 fenugreek, 100 % barley.6 % fenugreek, 100 % barley.3 % fenugreek and 100% barley % fenugreek) in sub plots. Mixed intercropped plants were harvested at the physiological maturity stage of barley grains.
Results and DiscussionHighest forage dry matter was obtained from application of 36 ton manure/ha in proportion of 100% barley 50% fenugreek. Highest N content of mixed forage was observed from the rate of 36 ton manure/ha and 100% fenugreek. However, highest N yield of mixed forage was observed from 100% barley 50% fenugreek with application of 36 ton manure/ha. Highest forage P content was observed in 100 % barley and lowest P content in 100 % fenugreek. Effect of manure application on Zn content of mixed forage was fitted by a linear application. Therefore, by increasing the application of one kg of compost manure per hectare, an increase of 0.8 mg Zn content was observed.
Generally, fenugreek as a legume plant with N fixation ability had a higher content of N than barley. However, barley plants had higher levels of P and Fe content due to their stronger root system to absorb these nutrients from the soil. In all treatments, mixed forage of barley and fenugreek were supplement together in terms of nutrient value. But, highest quality and forage yield were obtained by application of 36 ton composted manure/ha and mixed intercropping of 100 % barley % fenugreek.

IntroductionA sustainable cropping system can be designed by choosing crops that can use the solar radiation and water more efficiently. Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) is a highly productive crop which is widely under cultivation in different regions in Iran. Sugar beet production in Iran, scarcely limited by the solar radiation, but heavily relies on limited available water in such arid and semi-arid regions which makes the spring cultivation of it very expensive. Autumn cultivation of sugar beet is considered as an alternative to avoid water stress in Khorasan province, which is the main producing land of this crop in Iran. Variation of chlorophyll florescence parameter is an important criterion as well as suitable and nondestructive method which has been employed to determine the differences between plant species on resistance to environmental stresses such as freezing stress, and has been widely used as an important index to quantify the response of cold resistant varieties of corn and rice and heat resistance of sunflower cultivars.
Materials and MethodsIn order to study the possibility of using the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters for evaluation freezing tolerance of sugar beet varieties, an experiment was performed by using a factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications at agricultural faculty of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Seven sugar beet varieties (Jolge, Giada,Monatunno,SBSI1, Palma, Suprema,andPP8), exposed to ten freezing temperature levels (Zero, -2, -4, -6, -8, -10, -12, -14, -16 and -18), and their yield of quantum efficiency (ΔF/Fms) were measured in four levels of recovery periods (2, 12, 24 and 72 hours). Chlorophyll fluorescence was measured on control plants along with plants which were under 2, 12, 24, 72 hr. recovery after freezing. Measurements were carried out by using a portable fluorometer in the marginal region of the youngest fully expanded leaves.
Results and DiscussionPhotochemical efficiency of photosystem II had strong regression with plant survival percentage (R2=0.90**). Monatunno variety had the highest and SBSI1 had the lowest photochemical efficiency of photosystem II. There were no differences between sugar beet varieties on photochemical efficiency of photosystem II until -14oC, but lower temperatures severely declined that parameter. There was a reduction on efficiency of photosystem II in the first 24 hr. duration of recovery, but after 72 hr. increased up to the before freezing conditions. Monatunno cultivar had the suitable recovery where exposed to the -16oC, but the efficiency of photosystem II on SBSI1 cultivar was decreased dramatically at the same temperature. Fluctuation trends of ΔF/Fmsbetween freezing treatments and recovery periods showed sensible decrease trend until -14oC, but negative trend started at -16oC and reached to lowest values at -18oC in recovery period. Hasselt (1996) showed significant decrease in (ΔF/Fms) between wheat varieties started at temperatures lower than -8oC. Fluctuation trend of ΔF/Fms parameter of Monatunna and Sbsi1 varieties as resistant and sensitive varieties with respectively highest and lowest survival percentage under severe freezing treatments (-14, -16 and -18oC) indicated clear difference between Monatunna and Sbsi1 at -16oC.
ConclusionsYield of quantum efficiency of sugar beet varieties showed highest differences in recovery period, this parameter quantity in Monatunna as a resistant genotype recovered near to before stress conditions during recovery period (except -18oC freezing treatment) but Sbsi1 as a sensitive variety did not show recovery especially in severe freezing levels. Based on this study, we can determine Monatunna variety as high resistant to freezing stress with quick recovery period compared to other study varieties in early growth period which is almost the most important part of growth cycle of sugar beet varieties.

IntroductionWater deficit is the major abiotic factor limiting plant growth and crop productivity around the world. In all agricultural regions, yields of rain-fed crops are periodically reduced by drought. Among various strategies, pre-sowing treatment and priming of seeds are easy, low cost, low risk and effective approaches to overcome the environmental stress problems. Various priming strategies include osmopriming, halopriming, hormonal priming or hydropriming, etc. Hydrogen peroxide, a stress signal molecule, was evaluated as seed treatment to produce the metabolic changes, which could lead to improved drought tolerance in wheat. The interaction of signals conferring stress tolerance in accomplishing better crop growth and yield is a priority area of research. Here we report some anatomical, physiological and biochemical changes induced by Hydrogen peroxide during seed treatment and their involvement in conferring drought tolerance upon wheat.
Materials and MethodsA field study was conducted out at the research farm of agricultural collage of Ilam university during 2014-2015 cropping season. This study was aimed to investigate the priming seed with hydrogen peroxide on two wheat genotypes (Cross Sabalan (bread wheat) and Saji (durum wheat)), under dryland farming system condition. Experimental design was factorial, arranged in randomized complete block, with three replications. Two main factors were wheat genotypes and four soaking treatments of seeds with different concentration (zero, 25, 50 and 80 Mm) of Hydrogen Peroxide. Seeds of each genotype were sown at 6 rows of 3 m length with lines space of 20 cm in depth 5 cm. At heading stage physiological traits were measured on selected leaves and then samples were taken to determine leaf area, Leaf rolling, number and length of Stomata on the epidermis, RWC, electrolyte leakage, photosynthetic pigments concentrations (Chla, b and carotenoid) and antioxidant enzyme contents (catalase, ascorbate peroxidase) and at tillering stage Anatomical traits (mesophyll area, bundle sheet area, upper and lower epidermis cells layer and both length and area of xylem and phloem vessels)were measured using image analysis technique by Dino-eyeanalysis software. Data were analyzed based on experimental design model. Means comparison was performed based on LSD test (P≤0.05). All calculations were performed using SAS (version 9.1) software.
Results and DiscussionAll studied parameters, anatomical, physiological and grain yield, of genotypes were significantly affected by priming seeds with hydrogen peroxide. Positive changes in anatomical and physiological traits in response to hydrogen peroxide increased grain yield in both experimental genotypes. Priming of seeds with hydrogen peroxide produced plants with higher relative water contents, photosynthetic pigments concentrations (Chla, b and carotenoid) and antioxidant enzyme contents (catalase, ascorbate peroxidase) comparing with non -primed seeds. Plants of hydrogen peroxide primed seeds produced higher leaf area, stomata length, fresh and dry weights, and lower rate of electrolyte leakage and leaf rolling comparing to non-primed seeds. Priming seeds with hydrogen peroxide increased mesophyll area, bundle sheet area, upper and lower epidermis cells layer and both length and area of xylem and phloem vessels. Anatomical changing due to hydrogen peroxide priming in enhanced growth and yield of both genotypes was positive since primed plants with hydrogen peroxide had produced higher grain yield compared to non-primed plants. Overall, priming seeds with hydrogen peroxide improved grain yield of both wheat genotypes, especially grain yield of bread wheat Cross Sabalan cultivar.
ConclusionsThe anatomical and physiological characteristics improved in dry conditions and lack of available water to the plant is essential for achieving high yield. The results showed that the concentration of 80 Mm hydrogen peroxide as a pre-treatment seed through positive effects on physiological and anatomical features could increase the yield of Saji and cross Sabalan under rain-fed conditions.

IntroductionThe excessive use of fertilizers has caused severe damages to the bio-cycle in the fields and has destroyed the sustainable agricultural machinery. These destructive effects have led to the recommended use of bio-fertilizers. Biodiversity is one of the key sources of supplying nutrients in sustainable agriculture. The use of biological fertilizers in a sustainable agricultural system leads to sustained yield in plant production. Biological fertilizer of nitroxin has increased biological yield and grain yield in fodder corn. Water shortage as a limiting factor has limited vegetation growth and development in these areas. Considering that Iran is a dry country, the use of super adsorbent is one of the ways to reduce water consumption. Investigators in the study of superabsorbent showed that superabsorbent had a significant and positive effect on the yield of forage plants. Crop directions can affect the amount of the product by increasing the leaf area and absorbing light. Proper orientation of crop lines increases the photosynthetic efficiency and increases the yield and yield components of the plant. Research has shown that yields are much higher in plants planted on the north-south lines compared with plants planted on east-west lines.
Materials and MethodsIn order to investigate the effect of nitroxin and superabsorbent fertilizer on yield and yield components of broad leaf vetch in a research field of agricultural faculty, Lorestan University, as a split plot factorial based on a complete block design randomization was performed in three replicates. In this research, for main lines, the main factors were considered in the North-South and East-West directions in the main plots. Sub-factors In this experiment, nitroxin biosynthesis and superabsorbent materials were applied at two levels of consumption and non-consumption in sub plots. Nitroxin fertilizer was used as a seed lot at a rate of 1 liter per hectare and the stockosorb polymer was 100 kg/ha at planting time under cultivating lines under the seed at a distance of 2 cm. In this experiment, the pesticide leaf was grown with 97% volatility and 1000-weight weight of 109.56 grams with plant density of 200 plants per square meter. The raw data obtained from the measurement of each of the traits tested after the normal distribution was analyzed using MSTAT-C software. Comparisons of the meanings were compared using Duncan's multiple range tests at probability levels (1 and 5%).
Results and Discussion The results showed that using nitroxin fertilizer on stem diameter, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, 1000 seed weight, grain yield, biological yield and harvest index had significant effect. Probably the secretion of plant growth hormones due to the presence of stabilizing bacteria in nitroxin and the gradual release of substances has been shown to stimulate growth and increase yield. Studies have shown that the use of nitroxin biological fertilizer has increased biological yield and seed yield in rapeseed plants due to the availability of food in the critical stages of plant growth. Therefore, increasing the amount of nutrients available to the plant, especially nitrogen, stimulates plant growth and increases dramatically and increases yield. Also, plant height, stem diameter, grain yield, biological yield and harvest index increased in superabsorbent application than control. Super absorbent polymer has reduced the negative effects of drought stress and increased yield. Under stress conditions, the plant faces a severe decrease in cellular inflammation, cell growth and division, which leads to a decrease in vegetative growth while the use of superabsorbent prevents stress and increases vegetative growth. The results of reaserch on corn showed that the use of superabsorbent increased plant yield, which was consistent with the results of this study (Yousefifard et al., 2011). North-South cultivation direction had a positive effect on many traits. Performance in different directions of planting is affected by the efficiency of light consumption and photosynthesis activity. The results of this study indicate that the plants cultivated on the north-south lines have been more favorable in terms of plant height. Research showed that the yield of barley, corn, wheat and pearl millet in different directions was different, and cultivated plants in the north-south direction had a higher yield. Differences in plant height in different planting orientations can result from better water productivity or more sunlight.
ConclusionsThe results show that the North-South crop line has better results than the East-West lines. The remarkable point in this study was that the combined application of superabsorbent and bio-fertilizer nitroxin in all treatments affected all studied traits and significantly increased their amounts. The use of nitroxin and superabsorbent fertilizers for plants planted on the northern-southern rows increases the yield and yield components of the pesticide plant.

IntroductionCereals are the main agricultural production. Wheat is an annual crop, which plays an important role in human’s source of food. Wheat grains have various nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins and various amino acids. The annual per capita consumption of wheat is about 232 in Iran, which is about double time of the world capita consumption. Weed interference decrease the quality and quantity of wheat production. Weed management in wheat farms is one of the main cost and time-consuming practices. Wheat yield decrease significantly by weed competition. Therefore, effective weed management dependents on knowledge about the effect of competition on yield and yield components. Response of the yield and yield components to weeds competition is different in crop species during the growth period. Yield components in development stages show the maximum sensitivity to weed competition. Wild Oat is the most important weed in wheat fields. Synchrony in development stages of wild oat with development stages of wheat is much more important reason in reducing of wheat yield and yield component. On the other hand, wild oat damage on wheat yield and yield components depends on several factors including species, plant density, wheat cultivars, nutrients consumption, sowing date, row spacing, and other ecological conditions. Moreover, leaf area index, plant height, leaf area density in canopy determine competitiveness of wild oat among wheat. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of wild oat competition in different plant densities and levels of Nitrogen fertilizer consumption on yield and yield components of wheat under Kermanshah climate.
Materials and MethodsThis study was conducted to evaluate the competition of wild oat and winter wheat at the Research Farm of Campus of Agricultural and Natural Resources of Razi University during 2014-2015. The experiment was arranged in a split plots based on randomized complete block design with four replications. Treatments included amounts of 30, 60, 100, and 120 % of wheat demand to nitrogen fertilizer as a main plot and wild oat plant density of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 in m-2 as a subplot. Fertilizer applications were based on soil test recommendations at the rates of 250 kg ha-1 urea and 100 kg ha1 super phosphate triple. All phosphate and 1/3 of urea fertilizer were applied at planting, and 2/3 of urea was applied later. The experimental farm was ploughed using a mold board plough and then it was disked twice before sowing. Wheat and wild oat seeds were planted on November 20. Wheat plant density was 400 plants m-2. The experimental plot includes 10 planting row of three meters length with 25 cm row spacing. Wild oat seeds were collected from surrounding farms and pocket companies. In order to breaking wild oat seed dormancy was used KNO3 2% about 24 hours. Irrigation was done using a surface method based on plant demand. Analysis of variance was conducted by SAS software (version 9.4). Also, post-anova analysis performed to slicing interaction of nitrogen fertilizer application and wild oat plant density. The comparison of means was done based on LSD at 5% level.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed that number of spike per square meter (24%), number of grain in spike (31%), 1000 grains weight (19.4%), grain yield (49.82%), wheat total dry weight (54.1%) and wild oat total dry weight (54.2%) improved by increasing of Nitrogen fertilizer application from 30 to 120 % wheat demand. Also number of spike per square meter (12.8%), number of grain per spike (23.5%), 1000 grains weight (21.8%), grain yield (38.9%), and wheat total dry weight (27.7%) decreased by increasing of wild oat plant density from zero to 100 plant per square meter. The results of interaction of nitrogen fertilizer application and wild oat plant density showed that the extent of wild oat damage on yield and yield components of wheat were increased with the increasing of nitrogen fertilizer application.
ConclusionsOur results demonstrated that higher resources absorption by wild oat and converting them to biomass compare to wheat increased the ability of wild oat in competition for resources and production of higher biomass and, consequently caused to more damage on yield and yield components of wheat especially with more nitrogen fertilizer application. In addition, it can be concluded that an increase in application of nitrogen fertilizer to higher than wheat demand not only did not improve wheat yield and yield components but also wild oat damage increased.

IntroductionLow organic matter in arable land is one of the problems in arid and semi-arid regions that can be effective in reducing yield and increasing production costs. Soil organic matter, however, influences several critical soil functions and is affected by land management practices. Soil organic matter enhances water and nutrient holding capacity and improves soil structure. Appropriate soil carbon management can enhance productivity and environmental quality, and can reduce the severity and costs of natural phenomena, such as droughts. In addition, the practice of increasing soil organic matter levels may help in reducing atmospheric CO2 levels that contribute to climate change. Decreases in soil organic matter contents, through cultivation or tillage intensification, are often related to the deterioration of soil structure. Effects include the loss of aggregate stability, increased crust formation, increased runoff and soil erosion, increased soil compaction, slower water infiltration and a slower exchange of water and gasses. Organic matter impacts the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the soil. Soil water holding capacity is controlled primarily by the soil texture, structure and the soil organic matter content. Organic matter can hold up to 20 times its own weight of water as the level of organic matter increases in a soil, the water holding also increases, due to the affinity of organic matter for water. The output of organic matter comprises the organic matter losses or exits, i.e. organic matter that is considered not available for spreading on land or in-situ losses due to soil processes. A certain percentage of organic matter produced will end up in landfills or will be used in bio-energy plants. Conversation tillage approaches and plant residue management could play an effective role on sustainable production of agro ecosystems, environment and lower input application through its direct effect on soil physical and chemical criteria.
Materials and MethodsThe field experiment was conducted in the Agricultural Research Station of Jolge Rokh, Khorasan Razavi province, Iran in an area of 1.5 hectares of land which was under sugar beet cultivation in the previous year, during the 2013-2014 growing season. Experimental design was split plot based on Randomized complete block design with three replications. Three soil tillage types comprising conventional tillage (moldboard plow, disk, leveler, furrower and planting with seeder), reduced tillage (packer chisel, cyclo-tiller and planting with seed drills) and no tillage (direct seeding with GASPARDO pneumatic seed drills) and three residue management (no residue remaining of 30 and 60 percentage of residues) were considered as main and sub-plot, respectively. Wheat cultivar was used the Mihan. For residue management treatments, 30 and 60 percent residue of the sugar beets grown in the previous season and was conserved and managed in the soil.
Results and DiscussionNo significant effect was observed among tillage types according to plant height, number of spike per square meter, spike height, number of seed per spike and harvest index, while the difference between biological yield, seed weight per spike, 1000-seed weight and seed yield were significant. Result showed that, use of tillage operations led to favorable conditions for plant growth and height. In the other hand no significant change was shown in plant height with increasing residue, possibly due to incomplete decomposition of plant residue and stabilization of nutrients, especially nitrogen. The highest and the lowest wheat seed yield were obtained in these two types of tillage. No significant effect was observed on any of the studies parameters. Different tillage treatments had the significant effect on biological yield. Biological yield increased with reduced tillage. Tillage operations had significant influence on grain weight per spike. The highest and the lowest seed weight per spike were related to reduced tillage and conventional treatments.
ConclusionsGenerally, biological yield was increased as tillage intensity was decreased, but remaining sugar beet residues had no effect on this parameter.

IntroductionOsmotic adjustment in plants can be achieved by the accumulation of compatible solution or metabolites. These compounds are known as compatible metabolites that accumulate naturally in tolerant plants due to non-interference in the normal metabolic response of plants to adapt or supplement. Proline, soluble sugars and other metabolites accumulation that are involved in osmotic adjustment have been reported for various plants. Different studies show that water absorption in sorghum plant, is due to osmotic adjustment and appropriate and fairly extensive root system. Moreover, there are some differences from genotype to genotype regarding the osmolites accumulation under drought stress conditions. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of drought in the vegetative and reproductive growth stages on yield, its components and biochemical traits in grain sorghum genotypes.
Materials and MethodsIn order to evaluate the effect of water stress on grain yield and its components and some biochemical traits in grain sorghum genotypes (Sorghum bicolor L.), a field experiment as a split plot design was carried out with 3 replications in 2014 at the research farm of the southern Khorasan Agriculture and natural resources research and education center. Water stress treatments including normal irrigation (control), irrigation cut off in vegetative growth stage (emergence of terminal leaf as rolled) and irrigation cut off in generative growth stage (50% of plants in start of flowering) as the main plot and 10 genotypes of sorghum including KGS29, MGS2, Sepideh, KGFS27, MGS5, KGFS5, KGFS17, KGFS13 and KGFS30 were considered as sub plots. Each plot consists of 4 rows with a length of 6 m and row spacing of 60 cm, between plants on row was 10 cm. In addition, between each plot and the adjacent plot a row was considered to side effect reduction. To determine the yield components of each plot, half a meter in length was harvested and the number of plants, the number of panicles, grain yield, 1000 grains weight and the number of seeds per panicle were determined. To determine the yield, after removal of 2 marginal lines and a half meter of the beginning and the end of each plot, plants were harvested from the surface of 3 m2. Biochemical parameters including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, proline and carbohydrates were measured on the flag leaf after flowering stage in each plot. Flag leaves immediately wrapped in aluminum foil and transferred into liquid nitrogen tanks after separating from the plant. The samples were transferred to a freezer at -20 ° C to be measured traits on them. Measurement of the biochemical characteristics, such as chlorophyll a content, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll a and b and carotenoid content was done according to Arnon method. Measuring the concentration of soluble carbohydrates was performed using sulfuric acid method. Measurement of free proline was done by Bates method. Sugar percentage of stem (Brix) was read by a refractometer after cutting and placement of juice out of it.
Results and DiscussionResults showed that water stress had a significant effect on grain yield, 1000 grain weight, the numbers of seed per panicle and caused to decrement of them. The performances of different genotypes varied significantly for all traits, indicating high variability among them. In case of 1000 seed weight, the interaction between water stress and genotype did not show a significant difference, however, other traits which mentioned above showed a significant difference in this aspect. Regarding the biochemical characteristics, the impact of drought in the vegetative and reproductive growth stages was different, as drought reduced the content of chlorophyll and carotenoid and increased the content of soluble sugar and free proline and stalk sugar content (Brix). In term of grain yield, genotype KGFS13 with the average yield of 5060 Kg per hectare and then genotype KGFS17 had the highest yield. Comparison of interaction between genotype and stress about carbohydrate (sugar solution) concentration of leaves indicated that genotype KGFS30 in severe drought stress, had highest level and genotype KGFS27 in normal irrigation and genotype KGS33 in medium drought stress condition commonly had the lowest carbohydrate content of leaves respectively.
ConclusionsOverall results indicate that proline and soluble carbohydrates and stem sugar content increased under drought stress and photosynthetic pigments are reduced.

IntroductionNowadays, increasing world population, destruction of natural resources followed by the confirmed need to increase food production are the basic challenges of the world. The appropriate solution for this challenge is sustainable agriculture based on consuming different kinds of biological and organic fertilizers, with the purpose of elimination and considerable decrease of agrochemicals. Phosphorus biological fertilizer consisted of two genus of bacteria, Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp., helps plants to absorb phosphorus dissolved in soil by two mechanisms, excreting organic acids and phosphate enzyme.
Improving nitrogen use efficiency is a principle strategy to increase sustainability in agricultural systems. Some of management options which are effective on increasing nutrients efficiency in agro–systems are intercropping, rotation and green manure application. Utilizing fixed nitrogen of legumes by cereals is the advantage of intercropping legumes and cereals. Intercropping systems are practical and suitable samples for increasing water use efficiency in agriculture. Francis (9) believes that in case of water limitation, the best way to improve water use efficiency is intercropping.
The purpose of the present study was evaluating sole cropping system, intercropping common millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) and the role of biological fertilizer to achieve the most suitable combination of growing these two species crops and fertilizing recommendations with the purpose of suitable yield and resources use efficiency.
Materials and MethodsThis experiment was conducted at a farm in Najafabad-Isfahan, during growing season of year 2013-2014. The experimental treatments were arranged in split plots based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Two levels of phosphorus biofertilizer a1 (seed inoculation with Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. rhizobacteria as Barvar 2 biofertilizer®) and a2 (control=no inoculation) were assigned to main plots. The sub-plots including b1 (sole cropping of millet), b2 (millet100% cowpea25%), b3 (millet100% cowpea50%), b4 (millet100% cowpea75%), b5 (millet100% cowpea100%) and b6 (sole cropping of cowpea). The distances between the rows in all treatments were 50 centimeters and the distance between two plants on each row of the sole millet was 8.6, for sole cowpea was 10.7 centimeters (with density of 200 and 160 thousand plants per hectare). In additive ratios the distances between the plants on all rows were 4.3 centimeters for millet as the fixed plant and 21.4, 10, 7, 7.1 and 5.4 cm for cowpea (with density of 4, 8, 12 and 16 plants per m2) which were on the parallel rows with millet.
Water use efficiency for grain yield was calculated from equation 1(8) and nitrogen efficiencies (including: recovery, Physiological and use) also were calculated by using the equation 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
Results and DiscussionThe results of this experiment showed that the effect of Barvar 2 biofertilizer® on WUE, NRE, NPE and NUE was significant (P≤0.05). In addition, the effect of cropping ratios on all measured traits was significant so that the most (0.704, 0.473 and 0.784 kg.m-3) water use efficiency, nitrogen recovery efficiency (77.7, 101.7 and 120.6%), nitrogen physiological efficiency (55.3, 37 and 66.8 kg.kg-1) and nitrogen use efficiency (43.2, 37.7 and 48.7 kg.kg-1) observed respectively for millet in ratio of millet 100% cowpea25%, for cowpea in sole cropping and for total two species also in ratio of millet100% cowpea25% was obtained.
ConclusionsThe results of this experiment showed that the management based on true understanding of ecological basis and principles of intercropping systems and application of biofertilizers could be an ecological approach for increasing productivity and best usage of resources (water and nitrogen) in order to achieve suitable production, decrease expenses and dependence to expensive foreign inputs, eliminate pollution and bioenvironmental pressures on sustainable agricultural systems.
Acknowledgements The authors are sincerely grateful to all the respectable anonymous persons that supported this research.

IntroductionSoybean is a member of leguminoseae family with average protein percentage of 40%, which needs a large amount of nitrogen fertilizer to get maximum yield. Using biofertilizers, beside chemical nitrogen fertilizers, can reduce proportion of chemical nitrogen demand without any undesirable effect on quantity and quality of its yield. Biological nitrogen fixation of soybean by Rhizobium japonicam can improve nitrogen use efficiency parameters beside its yield. This experiment was conducted with the aim of study the effect of different levels of nitrogen, bio-fertilizers and Nano-nitrogen on nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and yield of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) cv. Williamz.
Material and MethodsA field experiment was conducted as a spilt plot in a randomized complete block design with three replications in 2013 at research center for agriculture and natural resources of Darab, Fars, Iran. Main factor was mineral nitrogen at three levels (zero, 75 and 150 kg N ha-1 ) and sub plot was nitrogen source at four levels (Rhizobium japonicum, nano-nitrogen, nitroxin and control). Rhizobium japonicum bacteria was inoculated in rate of 125 gr per 50 Kg seeds, nitroxin in rate of 0.5 L per 9 Kg seeds, and nano-nitrogen in rate of 10 L ha-1. The experimental plot dimensions were 2 x 4 m consisting of 4 rows of cultivated soybean 50 cm apart. The seeds were planted 5cm apart on each row. A furrow irrigation system was employed during experimental period. After the physiological maturity the experimental plots were harvested and yield, yield components, protein, protein yield, seed nitrogen content at ripening stage, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUTE), nitrogen uptake efficiency (NUE) and nitrogen harvest index (NHI) were measured.
Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the interaction of nitrogen and nitrogen source was significant for grain yield, harvest index, nitrogen percentage in the grain ripening phase, seed protein and protein yield. Mean comparison showed that the highest grain yield (2018 kg ha-1) obtained from application of 75 kg N ha-1 with Rhizobium application and the lowest grain yield (1476 kg ha-1) obtained from the no nitrogen fertilizer application. The highest seed protein percentage and seed protein yield observed in application of 150 kg N ha-1 with Rhizobium application. The highest nitrogen in the grain (1.51 %) was related to application of 75 kg ha-1 N with nano-nitrogen application. The highest nitrogen content of shoot in harvesting stage was achieved by integrated application of 75 kg ha-1 nitrogen and nano-fertilizer nitrogen. The highest nitrogen harvest index (NHI) (77.81 %) obtained from application 150 kg ha-1 N with nano-nitrogen application, maximum nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) (26.90 kg kg-1) was obtained from application of 75 kg N ha-1 and Rhizobium application and the minimum (12.66 kg kg-1) was obtained from application of 150 kg N ha-1 and Rhizobium. Generally, soybean production in Darab region had the best results with the use of 75 kg N ha-1 along with the Rhizobium japonicum application.
ConclusionsApplying of biofertilizers beside chemical nitrogen, could decrease chemical nitrogen use without any impact on qualitative and quantitative yield of soybean. According to the results of this study application of half of the recommended amount of nitrogen (75 kg N ha-1) and inoculation with Rhizobium japonicum bacteria (125 gr per 50 kg seeds) had the highest grain yield, harvest index, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and nitrogen harvest index (NHI). It seems that combined application of bacteria and chemical fertilizers can improve soybean performance and also reduce its chemical nitrogen demand. Our results suggested that, integrated application of 75 kg ha-1 nitrogen and Rhizobium can be suitable treatment to soybean production in Darab climatee.