نشریه پژوهه باستان سنجی
سال سوم شماره 1 (پیاپی 5، بهار و تابستان 1396)

Glass is one of the oldest materials which have been used in human history. Till nowadays, glass has not lost its attraction. The macroscopically character of this object make it usable for many different applications. Whether its transparency or its opacity, this object is the most fascinating material. Indeed, the history of glass making goes back to the 3th Millennium BC in Near East and Levant, but the early supported documentation with regard to the fabrication of this material goes back to the 2th Millennium BC. The glass wires from Chogha Zanbil are the unique and most considerable objects from Elamite period (2th Millennium BC). Chogha Zanbil glass wires are also known as the first evidence for glass-making in the second millennium BC in Iran and are of particular importance due to their material characteristics, manufacturing technique, their form and style. In this research, two pieces of glass wares belonging to the 2nd millennium BC from Chogha Zanbil, in the Abadan Museum, were subjected to chemical and structural investigations. The main question discussed in this paper is to determine the chemical composition as well as crystalline phase constituents of these materials, technological features and determining the firing temperature of these glass objects. QPXRD method was used to identify the crystalline structure of these materials. The microstructure and texture of the objects were studied and analyzed using ESEM-EDX method. Firing temperature of these wires was investigated by means of simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) method in order to estimate the manufacturing temperature. Mineralogical chemical studies indicate that these objects are in fact high-temperature ceramics, which have a glassy fabric. It occurs when the heating temperature passed the transition state. Glass transition relates to the transition from the solid state to the liquid state (or the reverse one). It is basically a kinetical phenomenon. It denotes to the so-called "structural relaxation". If the structural relaxation has time enough to happen during the statement time, the material behaves as a liquid. If the structural relaxation cannot occur during experience time, then the material behaves as a rigid -or semi rigid- solid. The external and internal layer of glasses seems to be a crystalline part with the effect of both sintering and partial smelting. The manufacturing temperature of these materials has reached about 1000-1100 ºC, and it has led to the glazing effects of glass on their surface.

Although the pottery is found in a massive amount in archaeological discoveries, these materials are the most important materials for different orientations in studies on the ancient people. One aspects of the study on ancient potteries, is the investigation about the painting and different colorants used for decorating potteries in variety patterns with different colors. This study aims to explore the ancient people knowledge and their experiments on creation of color by making up dying materials that could be found close to their dwells. The present work represented an attempt to discern experimentally the base and chemical composition of colorants used as decorative elements on ancient ceramics. Thus, five pieces of late Bronze painted pottery of the eastern Lake Urmia Basin (from the archaeological site of Kul Tepe of Ajabshir) were singled out. First, to determine whether the paint came from organic or inorganic sources and also to identify the existing anions and cations the Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) technique was employed. The results demonstrated that the used coloring material has a mineral origin, where the sharp and strong peak at 465 cm-1 of the spectrums confirmed that the nature of coloring agents consists of iron oxides. Next, for elemental analysis and studying the chemical structure and composition of the colorants Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive X-Ray analysis (SEM-EDX) was used. SEM-EDX analysis result demonstrated the presence of iron and manganese (Mn) content alongside other component elements of the ceramic bodies including SiO2, MgO, Al2O3, and K2O, where the results tallied with the FT-IR spectrums. On the basis of elemental analysis results, it could be said that iron oxides are the main components of coloring agents, where they could produce a variety of colors, ranging from red to dark brown. Moreover, the presence of manganese make the paintings darker, and consequently, the brighter nature of paintings of sample no. 3 of Kul Tepe and sample no. 1 of Haftvan could be the consequence of the miserable amount of this element (1.77 and 0.49%, respectively). Finally, in order to confirm and complete the study, the specimens were subjected to X-Ray Diffraction analysis (XRD). This experiment also showed that the pigments used in ornamenting the sherds were mineral and comprised of Agite mineral (Ca(Fe, Mg)Si2O6), as the coloring mineral, alongside other minerals including sodic and calcite feldspars. The results obtained are in good agreements with the geology of the region, where the feldspars exist as the main minerals of both sites. Therefore experimental analysis on the pigments structure that used in the painting of Kul Tepe Urmia ware decorations in different ways and various laboratory equipments demonstrated that the pigments used in the pottery decorations have mineral source and presented various iron compounds in the paint of decorations. As result of this study, the presence of iron compounds in the soil of the Kul Tepe region, it could be said the ancient people did use the natural sources of colorants for decoration of their potteries. Moreover, the techniques and materials used for decoration of the potteries were the same at both side of the Lake Urmia.

The Mashhad Musalla is one of the largest and most beautiful historic musallas in Iran. Mashhad Musalla has been built during the Safavid Empire, ordered by Suleiman I. Tile's inscription on the Iwan of Musalla gateway gives the date of the end of construction, in the year 1087 AH. This monument is located at the east of Mashhad. The building has a high porch and two porticoes on both sides. Musalla of Mashhad is constructed of bricks and it was previously using for prayers of the two Eids. The building has been decorated with stucco decoration, tile-working, wall painting and Muqarnas. The building is decorated with stucco decoration, tile-working, painting and Muqarnas. The glazed tile decorations of the Mashhad Musalla include glazed haft-rang and mosaic tiles. During Safavid period, all religious buildings were embellished with tiling decorations. The most prominent decorative element in Mashhad Musalla is tile-working. The tiles in the Mashhad Musalla are predominantly white, black, blue, turquoise, green, yellow and brown. The subject studied in this paper is the creating colorants elements and identification of the chemical composition of the glazed tiles in Mashhad Musalla. Scientific and analytical research was done by Scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDX) and Polarized light microscopy (PLM). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were used to determine the elemental compositions of the tile glazes. According to the results obtained, tin (II) oxide together with lead glaze has yielded white color, manganese oxide had been responsible for black color, cobalt (II) together with magnesium oxide and fluorine has yielded blue color, copper oxide was responsible of the turquoise color, lead glaze with the low content of iron oxides has yielded a brown hue, yellow color is attained by lead antimonite and copper oxide together with lead glaze had been responsible for green color. The comparison of the results of the chemical analysis of the Safavid glazed tiles in historic Musalla of Mashhad and results obtained by other scholars who have worked on the identification of the elemental composition of the glaze of Safavid tiles in the other monuments of Iran, indicated that the creating colorant elements were the same, with a little difference, during the seventeenth century and over the Safavid period in Iran. Finally, thin-section analysis under a polarizing microscope was applied to study the petrographic composition on the tile samples. The results of structural study and mineralogical composition of the body mosaic tiles of Mashhad historical Musalla by petrography method showed that the presence of Muscovite, Hornblendes, Biotite, Quartz and Feldspar minerals as the main crystalline phases within the samples. Based on the applied methods, the mineralogical analysis of tile bodies has revealed some considerable results on the composition of this kind of tiles. Apart from minor differences related to the groundmass composition, all the tile bodies examined by thin-section analysis show similar microstructure characteristics and analogous petrographic compositions. On the other hand, the results of the elemental analysis of the glaze of Safavid tiles and considering little difference between chemical composition of the Safavid glazed tiles of the Mashhad historical Musalla and the elemental composition of the glaze of Safavid tiles in the other regions of Iran, it can be deduced that the raw materials used have probably been provided from the local resources.

Glass can be defined as an inorganic melted product that has solidified without crystallization. Glass-making industry has an ancient history and background in Iran. In Sasanian period, this industry along with other industries attained a considerable development in manufacturing techniques, designs and decoration methods. Surprisingly, little has been published on the detail of technologies they employed, studies which have been accomplished are restricted to classification and typology of objects and artifacts. Therefore, this research tries to illuminate the unknown parts of this industry by using archaeological sciences and variation of statistical studies. The particle induced X-ray emission spectroscopy (PIXE) is a remarkable tool for the scientific investigation of cultural heritage. Study of glass-making structures in Sasanian period at Tal-i Malyan -considering manufacturing techniques and raw materials- is the main purpose of this research. Tal-i Malyan is located in Baiza district of Fars province in Iran. It lies 43 kilometers west of Persepolis, near the western edge of a large intermountain valley system drained by the Kur River, at an altitude of 1500 meters. Although first occupied in the Jari period (5500 B.C.) or earlier, evidence of later occupation such as Sasanian pottery kiln and coins found in burials, demonstrate Parthian and Sasanian settlements in Malyan. Hence, a group of 26 glass object fragments from Tal-i Malyan were selected as a case study in order to analyze them using PIXE method to determine the raw materials and technological aspects of their production and use. In addition, scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDS) images was used to gain a better understanding about the weathering process and decoration details. Applying statistical analysis such as cluster analysis has led to identify two glass recipes, different source of raw materials and different production technologies for manufacture of glass frit. The analytical data suggest that both soda-lime-silicate and potash-lime-silicate were producing in this area. Furthermore, iron and manganese contents show that the furnace temperature was mainly responsible for the development of green, blue and blue-green hues. Also, the presence of glass frits, quartz crystals and milky quartz indicates that the glassmaking manufacturing was a common and domestic industry in Malyan.

Quranic inscriptions are among the decorative elements commonly used in Islamic architecture. This is largely due to the fact that among the Islamic visual arts, calligraphy is the most related with holy Quran. Through calligraphy, the Holy Speech is represented before the viewers’ eyes. In addition to immediate conveying of the holy message, the Islamic calligraphy meets, spiritually, an aesthetic function as well. Calligraphic inscriptions, containing various arts such as calligraphy, gilding as well as cover embellishment, comprise a major part of Persian artistic and historical works. In respect of historical studies, thus, Quranic inscriptions have always been on focus. In this connection, one of the major arts implemented onto fabric surfaces has been inscription the fabric support of which painted, mainly in water color, with geometric and floral patterns. Created in different eras with various techniques and materials, inscriptions are among the most important architectural decorations giving a special effect to historical buildings. Typically, the best examples of tile inscriptions can be found in the great mosque (or Masjid-e-Jami) as well as in the Shah Mosque (also known as Imam Mosque) of Isfahan. Similarly, among the brick and plaster inscriptions, those found in Lajeem Tower, Masjid-e- Jame Isfahan and in Peer Bakran Shrine respectively, are noteworthy. Also, the inscriptions used in the Red, Kabud, and Modavar Domes of Maraghe, represent a salient instance made of brick-and-tile fretwork. Meanwhile, wooden inscriptions in Masjid-e-Jami of Abyane, Kashan are delicate ones. Fabric-made inscription of Masjid-e-Mulla Ismaeel, Yazd, implemented on a paper support, is one of the architectural decorations survived from Qajar era. Mullah Ismaeel Mosque was built by Akhound Mullah Ismaeel Aghdaie in Yazd, at the time of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. The shrine of Mullah Ismaeel, placed in a room at the southern side of the mosque, is a structure with Qajar architectural features. At the three sides of the southern platform of the shrine, the Holy Quranic Verse of Jomo’a (Friday) has been inscribed in a horizontal rectangular frame in Sulus Jali calligraphic style, decorated with arabesque margins on the plaster support around the frame. The inscription in question lacks a specific date and therefore, it is very difficult to determine its date. However, the plaster-made inscription implemented at either sides of the fabric-made inscription, bears a date, dating back to Qajar era. This inscription, mounted on the wall, includes floral motifs as well as Quranic verses. The historical era was attributed to Qajar time considering the features of the stone inscription installed in the mosque entrance. In terms of scientific research, scant attention has been given to the mentioned inscription and to similar works in Iran. In general, not many of such examples have survived the major part of which belongs to Safavid and Qajar era. Examination of such inscriptions, in terms of the kind of fabric used and colors and binders applied, can reveal important results helping to classify the various materials used in fabric-made inscriptions in different eras. Material identification of historical objects has a great importance for better understanding and reproduction process of ancient arts as a basic prior to applying the appropriate conservation method. Identification of materials such as paper, binder and pigments can help to distinguish a historical era and to have a better understanding of that era. For example, this can help to identify which techniques, or more importantly which materials, were used to apply a fabric-made inscription in Qajar era. A paper-based work, for instance, consists of other materials, other than paper itself, such as pigments, ink, binder, etc. Thus, it is first necessary to identify the chemical ingredients used in the work, as well as their interactions, based on the result of which, the most appropriate methods can be adopted and best materials applied in order to restore the work(s) in question. The present research mainly focused on identifying the materials used to make paper, binder and color applied in discussed inscriptions. The results, based on commonly used methods as well as instrumental techniques (such as FTIR and SEM-EDS) indicated that the binder and the support used were mainly composed of carbohydrates. Also, the fabric used was made of cotton and the paper of pulp (obtained from worn out clothes). The pigments applied were organic and the painting technique was watercolor. To implement the inscription, in practice, the artist first would stick the fabric onto a paper support. Then, to draw the desired lines onto the fabric surface, the fabric was burnished. Finally, the inscription was painted and mounted on the wall.

Iran is rich in ancient mining and metallurgical relics. Nevertheless, the studies on these relics have so far been mostly unsystematic. The road map for the ancient mining and metallurgical studies in Iran, that has been ordered by the Research Centre for Conservation of Cultural Relics of Iran (RCCCR), proposes a systematic multidisciplinary plan for the ancient mining and archaeometallurgical studies of Iran in the future. In this regard, following a brief review of the few systematic researches on the topic in Iran, the problems and challenges concerning the ancient relics of mining and metallurgy have been addressed. The conflict of interests between the modern mining sector and the cultural heritage organization, the lack of systematic plans for the documentation and study of ancient mining and metallurgical studies together with low contribution of the associated private sector in such studies as well as weak analytical infrastructures in the country are among the major challenges of the study of ancient mining and metallurgical relics in Iran. In this respect, an action plan for future studies in different aspects of ancient mining and metallurgy has been proposed. This plan is composed of five major pillars consisting of (1) “Collaboration”: interactive cooperation between associated Iranian institutions including the mining sector and the cultural heritage organization together with international institutions in the frame of the re-establishment of the “committee for studies on old mining and metallurgy”, (2) “Education”: training and education of mining archaeologists and archaeometallurgical experts together with familiarizing geologists, mining engineers, and archaeologists with the subject, (3)”Research”: research and study on the ancient mining and metallurgy by a number of substantial actions including preparation of an archive of the present level of knowledge on the subject which can eventually result in the preparation of an atlas of ancient mining and metallurgical relics of Iran, considering the old questions of archaeology concerning provenance and trade of raw and manufactured materials as well as the exchange of ancient technologies, performing systematic surveys for finding and documentation of the neglected ancient mines and metallurgical sites together with archaeological excavation of the significant ancient mines or metallurgical sites, and boosting the analytical and scientific infrastructure, (4) “Conservation”: preservation and conservation of selected representative ancient mining and metallurgical relics of the mines that are going to be exploited by modern mining sector, and (5) “Presentation”: publication and presentation of the results of the abovementioned aspects in diverse visual forms and appropriate scientific ways not only to the experts but also to the public. In the end, the paper has summarized the priorities concerning the future ancient mining and metallurgical studies of Iran. This road map that has mainly been prepared based on the knowledge and experience of the authors in the public and private sectors of Iran has also benefited from the constructive advices of the prominent international experts including Prentiss de Jesus, Vincent Pigott, Ernst Pernicka, Barbara Helwing, and Thomas Stöllner.