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مطالعات آموزش و یادگیری - سال دهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 74، بهار و تابستان 1397)

نشریه مطالعات آموزش و یادگیری
سال دهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 74، بهار و تابستان 1397)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1397/04/31
  • تعداد عناوین: 10
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  • مرتضی مرادی*، سیروس عالیپور، حمید طریفی حسینی، مینا عباسیان صفحات 1-24
    هدف پژوهش حاضر، شناخت رابطه حمایت اجتماعی ادراک شده و ارزش مدرسه با سرزندگی تحصیلی با میانجی گری درآمیزی با کار مدرسه بود. از طریق نمونه برداری خوشه ایتصادفی 358 دانش آموز دوره متوسطه دوم مدارس دولتی اسلامشهر (171 پسر، 187 دختر) انتخاب شدند. شرکت کنندگان مقیاس حمایت اجتماعی ادراک شده، واکس و همکاران، مقیاس ارزش مدرسه، تومینن-سوینی، سالمیلا-آرو و نیمیویرتا، مقیاس درآمیزی با کار مدرسه، سالمیلا-آرو و آپادیایا، و پرسش نامه سرزندگی تحصیلی، دهقانی زاده و حسین چاری، را تکمیل کردند. تحلیل داده ها با روش مدل سازی معادلات ساختاری (SEM) و با استفاده از نرم افزار AMOS انجام گرفت. بررسی مدل های روان سنجی نشان داد که ابزارها از روایی و پایایی مطلوبی برخوردار بودند. به طور کلی نتایج حاکی از آن بود که اول؛ حمایت اجتماعی ادراک شده قادر به پیش بینی مستقیم سرزندگی تحصیلی بود. دوم؛ حمایت اجتماعی ادراک شده و ارزش مدرسه پیش بینی کننده مستقیم درآمیزی با کار مدرسه می باشند. و سوم؛ درآمیزی با کار مدرسه توانست بین حمایت اجتماعی و ارزش مدرسه با سرزندگی تحصیلی نقش میانجی ایفا کند. یافته ها بر نقش متغیرهای بافتی و روان شناختی در ترغیب فراگیران به مشارکت در امور مدرسه جهت غلبه بر ناملایمات تحصیلی و نیل به سرزندگی تحصیلی تاکید دارد. نتایج با توجه به پژوهش های پیشین به بحث گذاشته شده و پیشنهادهایی به منظور پژوهش بیشتر در این زمینه مطرح شده است.
    کلیدواژگان: حمایت اجتماعی ادراک شده، ارزش مدرسه، درآمیزی با کار مدرسه، سرزندگی تحصیلی
  • فیروز محمودی*، فرزانه صادقی صفحات 24-54
    هدف از این پژوهش انجام فراتحلیلی بر مطالعات انجام شده در زمینه تاثیر روش های تدریس فعال بر پیشرفت تحصیلی دانش آموزان است. برای انجام فراتحلیل از رویکرد هانتر و اشمیت استفاده شده است. از بین 70 مطالعه شناسایی شده، 37 مطالعه وارد تحلیل شد. با توجه به این که برخی مطالعات از چندین متغیر یا مداخله استفاده کرده بودند چند بار در فرایند فراتحلیل بررسی شدند که در نهایت از کل پژوهش ها اندازه اثر برابر با 55 به دست آمد. نتایج نشان داد که روش های تدریس فعال تاثیر مثبت و معنی داری بر پیشرفت تحصیلی دانش آموزان با اندازه اثر بالا دارد، و طبق معیار کوهن این تاثیر در حد زیاد ارزیابی می شود. همچنین فراتحلیل نشان داد که میانگین اندازه اثر در دانش آموزان دختر و پسر معنی دار است و بر اساس مقیاس کوهن، در حد زیاد می باشد. به طور کلی، استفاده از شیوه های تدریس فعال باعث پیشرفت تحصیلی و یادگیری معنی دار می شود و در نتیجه آن انتقال یادگیری به جهان خارج افزایش می یابد.
    کلیدواژگان: تدریس فعال، یادگیری فعال، پیشرفت تحصیلی دانش آموز، فراتحلیل
  • مرتضی خسرونژاد، سودابه شکرالله زاده * صفحات 55-93
    جنبش فلسفه برای کودکان از آغاز، مبانی دیالوجیک خود را بر پایه روش سقراطی و برخی از مفهوم های نظریه رشد ویگوتسکی همچون درونی سازی و منطقه تقریبی رشد استوار ساخته است. اما روش گفت و گوهای سقراطی و دیدگاه ویگوتسکی در نگاه های جدیدتر فلسفی و روان شناسی، پرسشی کشیده شده و این انتقادها به جنبش فلسفه برای کودکان نیز راه یافته است. از همین رو برخی از اندیشمندان قلمرو فلسفه برای کودکان مبنای دیالوجیک باختینی را همچون واپسین جایگزین گفت و گوهای سقراطی پیشنهاد کرده اند. در این مقاله پس از نقد رویکردهای سقراط، ویگوتسکی و باختین به دیالوگ و برای چیرگی بر کاستی های این رویکردها، می کوشیم با خوانشی دوباره از نظریه تمرکززدایی پیشنهادی تازه برای مبنای دیالوجیک حلقه کندوکاو ارائه دهیم؛ مبنایی که می تواند به نقطه آغازی برای تدوین نظریه یادگیری و آموزش دیالوجیک بدل شود. در پرتو این نظریه، دیالوگ دارای دو ویژگی است: نخست آن که مونولوگ و دیالوگ بر روی پیوستاری قرار دارند که در هر نقطه آن رویدادی آمیخته از «مونولوگ-دیالوگ» در گذر است. دوم این که دیالکتیک و دیالوگ نیز پیوستاری اند و همچون مونولوگ و دیالوگ در هر نقطه ای به نسبت آمیخته اند. در این پیوند آنچه در حلقه کندوکاو یادگیری رخ می دهد، نوسان میان دیدگاه های گوناگون است که در واقع همان مسیر نوسان میان تمرکزگرایی و تمرکززدایی را می پیماید. همچنین در پرتو این نظریه برای چیرگی بر کاستی های دو مفهوم درونی سازی و منطقه تقریبی رشد ویگوتسکی به مثابه مبانی دیالوجیک برنامه فلسفه برای کودکان، دو جایگزین «از آن خود کردن» و «منطقه تقریبی دیالوگ» را پیشنهاد می دهیم. مهم ترین اشکال مفهوم درونی سازی ویگوتسکی لغو سویه تمرکززدایی در فرایند نوسان ذهن میان تمرکزگرایی و تمرکززدایی است، و انتقاد به مفهوم منطقه تقریبی رشد از این رو است که به چیرگی صدای اول یعنی صدای مابان، آموزگار و مربی بر صدای دوم، یعنی صدای کودک، دانش آموز و کارآموز می انجامد.
    کلیدواژگان: باختین، دیالوگ، سقراط، فلسفه برای کودکان، ویگوتسکی، نوسان میان تمرکزگرایی و تمرکززدایی، یادگیری و آموزش دیالوجیک
  • حبیب الله نادری، فرهاد خرمایی، عباس اکبری*، مصطفی صبری صفحات 94-111
    پژوهش حاضر با هدف بررسی نقش علی الگوهای ارتباطی خانواده در خودکارآمدی تحصیلی و تاب آوری تحصیلی دانش آموزان پسر سال اول مقطع متوسطه دوم انجام گرفت. برای این منظور، تعداد 291 نفر با استفاده از روش نمونه گیری خوشه ایتصادفی چند مرحله ای انتخاب شدند. برای جمع آوری داده ها از پرسشنامه الگوهای ارتباطی خانواده کوئرنر و فیتزپاتریک، پرسشنامه خودکارآمدی تحصیلی گرین و همکاران و پرسشنامه تاب آوری تحصیلی مارتین، استفاده شد. برای تحلیل داده ها از روش رگرسیون چندگانه به شیوه همزمان و برای بررسی نقش واسطه ای خودکارآمدی تحصیلی از از روش بارون و کنی استفاده گردید. بررسی فرضیه های مستقیم حاکی از این بود که: (1) جهت گیری گفت و شنود به طور مثبت تاب آوری تحصیلی و خودکارآمدی تحصیلی را پیش بینی می کند؛ (2) جهت گیری همنوایی به طور منفی خودکارآمدی تحصیلی را پیش بینی می کند؛ (3) خودکارآمدی تحصیلی، پیش بینی کننده مثبت تاب آوری تحصیلی است. بررسی فرضیه های غیر مستقیم حاکی از این بود که جهت گیری گفت و شنود، به صورت مستقیم و غیر مستقیم منجر به افزایش تاب آوری تحصیلی می شود. اما، جهت گیری همنوایی، فقط به صورت غیر مستقیم، تاب آوری تحصیلی را تحت تاثیر قرار داده و موجب کاهش آن می گردد. نتایج به دست آمده از تحلیل داده های پژوهش، بر نقش جهت گیری های خانواده در رشد و بهبود ویژگی های مورد مطالعه تاکید داشت که در پرتو این نتایج، پیشنهاداتی برای دست اندرکاران امر تعلیم و تربیت، مشاورین خانواده، دانش آموزان و نیز اولیا آنها ارائه شده است.
    کلیدواژگان: الگوهای ارتباطی خانواده، جهت گیری گفت و شنود، جهت گیری همنوایی، تاب آوری تحصیلی، خودکارآمدی تحصیلی
  • جلیل اعتماد*، بهرام جوکار صفحات 112-130
    در حوزه روان شناسی اخلاق بررسی نقش متغیرهای تسهیل کننده کنش اخلاقی دارای اهمیت است. بی صداقتی تحصیلی یکی از مسائل پر بسامد در محیط های تحصیلی و آکادمیک است. در این راستا تعیین نقش متغیرهای شناخت شناسی شخصی یا باورهای معرفت شناسی شخصی، دربرگیرنده تلاشی جدید است برای شناخت متغیرهای موثر در رفتار اخلاقی در یک بافت تحصیلی است. در مطالعه حاضر نقش باورهای معرفت شناسی برای پیش بینی بی صداقتی تحصیلی، به عنوان شاخصی از کنش اخلاقی، با در نظرگرفتن نقش جنسیت به عنوان متغیر تعدیل گر مورد آزمون قرار گرفت. مشارکت کنندگان 370 دانشجوی کارشناسی دانشگاه شیراز بودند (276 دختر و94 پسر) که مقیاس باورهای شناخت شناسی شراو، بندیکسن و دانکل و مقیاس بی صداقتی تحصیلی خامسان و امیری را تکمیل نمودند. نتایج مدل باورهای شناخت شناسی برای پیش بینی ابعاد بی صداقتی تحصیلی بیانگر روابط معناداری میان باورهای شناخت شناسی و ابعاد بی صداقتی تحصیلی بود. همچنین نقش تعدیلی جنسیت در مدل مورد تایید قرار گرفت. در مجموع یافته های پژوهش حاضر نقش باورهای شناخت شناسی در بی صداقتی تحصیلی را با در نظر گرفتن نقش تعدیلی متغیر جنسیت تایید نمود و از این نظر نقش طرحواره جنسیتی در بی صداقتی تحصیلی مورد تاکید قرار گرفت. محدودیت ها و دلالت های پژوهش مورد بحث قرار گرفت و کاربردهای پژوهش برای خانواده، معلمان، اساتید و فعالیت های مشاوره ای توضیح داده شد.
    کلیدواژگان: کنش اخلاقی، بافت تحصیلی، شناخت شناسی شخصی، طرحواره جنسیتی
  • زهرا معارفوند*، غلامرضا شمس مورکانی، زهرا صباغیان صفحات 131-167
    هدف پژوهش حاضر آسیب شناسی فرهنگ یادگیری دانشجویان رشته های علوم انسانی به روش کیفی بود. در این پژوهش به مصاحبه نیمه ساختمند با 14 نفر از اعضای هیئت علمی و مدیران آموزشی و 18 نفر از دانشجویان رشته های علوم انسانی پرداخته شد. جهت تحلیل نتایج مصاحبه به تحلیل محتوا با استفاده از شیوه مقوله بندی پرداخته و چون روند انجام مصاحبه بر اساس چارچوب مفهومی به دست آمده از بررسی پیشینه بود، لذا از روش قیاسی (کل به جزء) در تحلیل محتوا و مقوله بندی داده های کیفی استفاده شد. مقولات به دست آمده مطابق با چارچوب بررسی فرهنگ یادگیری سطوح سه گانه فردی، نهادی و تعاملی طبقه بندی گردید. براین اساس، سطح فردی شامل، انگیزه یادگیری، نقش یادگیرنده، انتظارات دانشجویان از یادگیری، وظایف یادگیرنده می شود. سطح نهادی با ابعاد تقدیر و تشویق نوآوری آموزشی، قوانین رسمی و غیر رسمی، بهبود کیفیت زمینه یادگیری، توسعه هیئت علمی، توانمندسازی ظرفیت آموزش ارائه گردید و سطح تعاملی نیز دارای ابعاد فضای یادگیری، ساختار محتوا، اهداف، رسانه، ارزشیابی، روابط اساتید با دانشجویان، استاد، چارچوب زمان است. بهبود فرهنگ یادگیری دانشجویان نمایانگر اعتبار و ارزشمندی فعالیت ها و اقدامات آموزشی گروه های تحصیلی علوم انسانی بوده و می تواند در کیفیت عملکرد آنها اثرگذار باشد، لذا یافته های پژوهش در توسعه فرهنگ یادگیری دانشجویان رشته های علوم انسانی موثر است.
    کلیدواژگان: رشته های علوم انسانی، فرهنگ یادگیری، آسیب شناسی
  • محمد مهدی تیموری آسفیچی *، فریبا خوشبخت، قربان همتی علمدارلو، علی تیموری آسفیچی، حسین اعتمادی صفحات 168-188
    پژوهش حاضر با هدف بررسی ویژگی های روان سنجی (پایایی، روایی و تحلیل عوامل) مقیاس «فرم کوتاه اندازه گیری بازتاب اخلاق اجتماعی» (گیبز، باسینگر و فولر) در دانش آموزان کم توان ذهنی خفیف شهر شیراز انجام شد. جامعه آماری پژوهش شامل همه دانش آموزان با کم توانی ذهنی خفیف بالای 16 سال دوره متوسطه شهر شیراز بود. نمونه پژوهش شامل 80 دانش آموز با کم توانی ذهنی خفیف بودند که با استفاده از روش نمونه گیری خوشه ایتصادفی از بین چهار مرکز دخترانه و پسرانه دانش آموزان با ناتوانی ذهنی انتخاب شدند. همچنین 80 دانش آموز بدون ناتوان ذهنی نیز به شیوه همتاسازی (متغیر جنسیت و سن) جهت بررسی روایی افتراقی انتخاب شدند. به منظور بررسی متغیر پژوهش، مقیاس «فرم کوتاه اندازه گیری بازتاب اخلاق اجتماعی» (گیبز و همکاران) بر روی هر یک از شرکت کنندگان اجرا شد. روایی مقیاس به شیوه تحلیل عامل، همسانی درونی، روایی صوری و روایی افتراقی و پایایی مقیاس به روش بازآزمایی، آلفای کرونباخ و ضریب توافق بین نمره گذاران مورد ارزیابی قرار گرفت. محتوای مقیاس به شیوه مولفه های اصلی مورد تحلیل عاملی قرار گرفت و نتایج تحلیل، سه عامل (اعتماد، زندگی و قانون) را نشان داد. ضرایب همبستگی عوامل با یکدیگر و نمره کل در تمامی موارد معنی دار و بین 47/0تا 87/0 متغیر بود. همچنین ضریب پایایی با استفاده از ضریب آلفای کرنباخ برای کل مقیاس 82/0و برای بعد اول، دوم و سوم به ترتیب 77/0، 57/0و59/0 بدست آمد. ضریب پایایی نمره گذاران و بازآزمایی نیز به ترتیب 95/0و 91/0 برای نمره کل مقیاس محاسبه شد. نتایج تحلیل واریانس چند متغیری و آزمون تی مستقل نیز نشان داد که بین دانش آموزان با و بدون کم توانی ذهنی خفیف در نمره کل مقیاس قضاوت اخلاقی و ابعاد آن، در سطح (001/0p<) تفاوت معناداری وجود دارد. یافته های حاصل نشانگر کفایت و کارایی این مقیاس برای استفاده در فرهنگ جامعه ایرانی بود.
    کلیدواژگان: فرم کوتاه اندازه گیری بازتاب اخلاق اجتماعی، روایی، پایایی، تحلیل عاملی، دانش آموزان با کم توانی ذهنی
  • مریم نمازیان، افسانه توحیدی*، مسعود باقری صفحات 189-205
    تفکر انتقادی، فکر خودهدایت شده و خود نظم داده شده ای است که در آن تلاش بر استدلال در بالاترین سطح کیفیت به روش فکری عادلانه یا تفکر بدون پیش داوری و عاری از تعصب هوش مندانه است. پرورش این نوع تفکر را یکی از اهداف غایی نظام تعلیم و تربیت رسمی دانسته اند. این پژوهش با هدف تعیین تاثیر آموزش هوش معنوی بر گرایش به تفکر انتقادی و خلاقیت هیجانی دانش آموزان دختر انجام گرفته است. پژوهش از نوع مداخله با طرح پیش آزمون-پس آزمون با گروه کنترل بود. جامعه آماری همه دانش آموزان دختر مقطع متوسطه شهر کرمان و مشارکت کنندگان در پژوهش شامل 34 نفر از دانش آموزان بودند که به روش نمونه گیری خوشه ایچند مرحله ای انتخاب شدند. این افراد بر اساس تقسیم تصادفی در دو گروه مداخله و گروه کنترل به تعداد برابر قرار گرفتند. برای جمع آوری اطلاعات مورد نیاز از سیاهه های گرایش به تفکر انتقادی ریکتس و خلاقیت هیجانی آوریل استفاده شد. این ابزارها ابتدا برای هر دو گروه، به منزله پیش-آزمون اجرا شدند. سپس، آموزش معنوی به عنوان متغیر مستقل پژوهش در 10 جلسه 90 دقیقه ای، برای گروه آزمایش اجرا شد. گروه کنترل هیچ مداخله ای دریافت نکرد. پس از پایان آموزش، بار دیگر دو ابزار پژوهش برای هر دو گروه مداخله و کنترل به عنوان پس آزمون اجرا شد. داده ها با استفاده از روش آماری تحلیل کواریانس تجزیه و تحلیل شد. نتایج نشان داد که آموزش هوش معنوی در افزایش میزان گرایش به تفکر انتقادی در گروه مداخله تاثیر مثبت و معناداری دارد. همچنین آموزش هوش معنوی تاثیر معناداری بر خلاقیت هیجانی مشارکت کنندگان در این پژوهش ندارد. یافته های پژوهش حاضر با توجه به پیشینه پژوهشی مورد بحث قرار گرفته اند. در پایان، پیشنهادهایی برای انجام پژوهش بیشتر درباره هوش معنوی و متغیرهای مربوط به تفکر انتقادی و خلاقیت هیجانی ارائه شده است.
    کلیدواژگان: هوش معنوی، تفکر انتقادی، خلاقیت هیجانی
  • حسین میهمی*، پوریا داسمه، محمد رامین باستان صفحات 206-229
    خلاقیت و نوآوری لازمه استمرار زندگی انسان در مواجهه با چالش ها است. خلاقیت که به عنوان استفاده از توانایی ذهنی برای ایجاد ایده های جدید تعریف می شود، قابل آموزش و ترویج است. پژوهش حاضر در پی آن بود تا تاثیر آموزش خلاقیت بر عوامل شناختی مرتبط با آن که شامل توانایی مشاهده، توانایی تفکر، توانایی تحلیل داده، انسجام فکری، استفاده از دانش قبلی و توانایی استفاده از اطلاعات درون متنی عوامل شش گانه است را در دانش آموزان پایه نهم، دهم و یازدهم مورد بررسی قرار دهد. در این پژوهش تعداد 73 دانش آموز (33 دختر و 40 پسر) در یک دوره مدرسه فصلی خلاقیت و ایده پردازی شرکت کردند. طرح این پژوهش به صورت یک گروه پیش آزمون-پس آزمون بود. برای ارزیابی پیشرفت دانش آموزان از دو فعالیت پروژه محور استفاده شد. در طراحی این دو پروژه از تمامی عوامل شش گانه استفاده شد و دانش آموزان به این فعالیت ها قبل و بعد از شرکت در کارگاه های خلاقیت به صورت انفرادی و گروهی پاسخ دادند. پاسخ های دانش آموزان توسط دو ارزیاب و به وسیله یک مقیاس شش گانه بررسی شد. به منظور اطمینان از پایایی نمره گذاران، پایایی بین دو نمره گذار که بیانگر دقت پایایی نمره گذاری بود، محاسبه شد. یافته های به دست آمده در بخش انفرادی نشان داد که آموزش های ارائه شده در بحث خلاقیت تاثیر معناداری بر عوامل شش گانه در دانش آموزان داشته است. همچنین این تاثیر معنادار در فعالیت های گروهی نیز دیده شد. بعلاوه، یافته های این پژوهش نشان دهنده وجود تفاوت معنادار در عملکرد انفرادی دانش آموزان دختر و پسر در انجام فعالیت های پروژه محور بود. با این وجود، هیچ تفاوت معناداری بین دانش آموزان گروه دختر و گروه پسر وقتی فعالیت های پروژه-محور را به صورت گروهی به انجام می رساندند دیده نشد. از نتایج به دست آمده از این پژوهش می توان به موثر بودن آموزش خلاقیت در بهبود توانایی خلاقیت دانش آموزان رسید.
    کلیدواژگان: آموزش خلاقیت، مدارس فصلی خلاقیت، توانایی تفکر، توانایی مشاهده
  • رابطه سبک های یادگیری و روحیه پژوهشگری دانش آموزان دوره دوم متوسطه
    مریم شفیعی سروستانی*، جعفر جهانی، سید روح الله موسوی پور صفحات 230-244
    از جمله مولفه های مهم فرایند آموزش، سبک یادگیری فراگیران است که باید توسط معلمان شناسایی شود. تشخیص این مولفه و تلاش در جهت اصلاح یا متناسب نمودن آموزش با آنها مزایای متعددی برای دانش آموزان و کل فرایند تدریس به همراه دارد. از جمله پیامدهای مهم سبک های یادگیری که توجه به آن ضرورت دارد، میزان اثرگذاری آن در پرورش روحیه جست وجوگری و توانمندی پژوهشی است. از این رو، در پژوهش حاضر، رابطه بین سبک های یادگیری و روحیه پژوهش گری دانش آموزان دوره دوم متوسطه مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. جامعه آماری پژوهش، شامل کلیه دانش آموزان دوره دوم متوسطه نواحی چهارگانه شهر شیراز بود که در سال تحصیلی 95-1394 مشغول به تحصیل بودند و با استفاده از روش نمونه گیری خوشه ایتصادفی، تعداد 345 نفر به عنوان شرکت کنندگان پژوهش انتخاب شدند. ابزارهای پژوهش عبارت بودند از پرسشنامه سبک های یادگیری کلب و پرسشنامه روحیه پژوهش گری محمد شریفی. نتایج حاصل از ضرایب همبستگی نشان داد که از میان سبک های یادگیری، دو سبک یادگیری همگرا و واگرا با روحیه پژوهش گری ارتباط معنی دار داشتند و نتایج رگرسیون چندگانه نیز موید آن بود که این دو سبک از میان سبک های یادگیری پیش بینی کننده روحیه پژوهش گری بودند. یافته های پژوهش حاضر در مجموع موید نقش سبک های یادگیری در پرورش روحیه پژوهش گری و تائیدکننده این فرضیه بود که در یادگیری هر دو سبک واگرا و همگرا باید مدنظر قرار گیرند.
    کلیدواژگان: سبک های یادگیری، روحیه پژوهش گری، سبک های یادگیری واگرا، همگرا، جذب کننده، انطباق یابنده
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  • Morteza Moradi *, Sirous Allipour Birgani, Hamid Toreyfi Hosseini, Mina Abasian Pages 1-24
    Introduction
    Low scores, difficult lessons, rigid incompetent teachers, as well as bleak and unfriendly classroom atmosphere, are among the challenges facing a teenager (Spear, 2000). To deal with these challenges, researchers have recently focused on the abilities and potentials of the teenagers, one of which is academic buoyancy. Within the confines of positive psychology, academic buoyancy is defined as the individual’s active resilience to the various challenges, pressures, and impediments they might commonly face in academic contexts (Martin & Marsh, 2009; Putwain, Connors, Symes & Douglas-Osborn, 2012). Various motivational antecedents have been identified for academic buoyancy that can be classified into three main categories: psychological, school and engagement, and family-and-peer factors (Martin & Marsh, 2008). Psychological factors include such factors as self-efficacy beliefs, control, resoluteness, and motivation. The school and engagement factors concern the influence of class participation, interaction with teachers, school values, and extra-curriculum activities, that have been of concern to several researchers (e.g. …). At the family-and-peers level, family support, interaction with socially approved people and friends, as well as the presence of authoritative and caring parents are among the consequential variables (…). The current investigation, following Martin and Marsh (2008), focuses at the psychological level on schoolwork interaction, at the school-and-engagement level, on school values, and at the family-and-peers level, on social support from the family and significant others. These variables were selected for their presumed significance in encouraging learners to try to reach success and to create optimal educational environments.
    Schoolwork engagement is defined as the positive concentrated state of the mind, characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption (Salmela-Aro & Upadyaya, 2012). Given that engagement involves control and concentration of mind, and control is a psychological factor, schoolwork engagement is categorized as a psychological variable. Research suggests that learners actively engaging in schoolwork demonstrate high levels of resilience in studying and in encountering various educational challenges. Moreover, such students are eager to learn, dedicate themselves to education and thus have a meaningful and successful educational life. In sum, students with high levels of schoolwork engagement, through their constant interaction with school, acquire the skills necessary for their success in education and can hereby create the desirable educational context (…).
    On the other hand, with respect to schooling value, or the students’ perception of the meaningfulness of schooling in general (Mucherah, 2008), Niemivirta (2004) demonstrates that learners who set high values on schooling incline toward self-promotion and improvement and far from any sense of dissatisfaction, demonstrate more constructive behaviors in their education in that what matters to these students is learning per se (e.g. Meece & Holt, 1993).
    As another motivational antecedent of academic buoyancy, social support refers to the type of assistance, which individuals receive or expect to receive from those whom come into contact with in any way (Papakonstantinou & Papadopoulos, 2010). There is ample evidence demonstrating the significance of social support in promoting compatibility, competence, and success.
    Besides the significance of these variables in promoting academic buoyancy, the literature supports the existence of a cause and effect relationship between them. In this regard, several studies suggest that perceived social support enhances the students’ academic buoyancy by increasing their schoolwork engagement and fostering their self-efficacy beliefs (e.g. Cheung & Sun, 2000). Research further suggests that belief in schooling value contributes to academic buoyancy and success by motivating learners to more actively engage in their schoolwork (…). Thereupon, the purpose of the current investigation is to verify the hypothesis that ‘schoolwork engagement mediates the relationship between schooling value and academic buoyancy’. In other words, the study aims to explore how perceived social support and school value affect academic buoyancy, taking schoolwork engagement as a mediating variable.
    Research questions
    The present study aims to explore the mediatory role of schoolwork engagement in the relationship between schooling value and academic buoyancy. Therefore, the present study attempts to answer the following questions:- Is it possible to predict student's academic buoyancy based on social support and school value?
    - Is it possible to predict student's schoolwork engagement according to social support and school value?
    - Can schoolwork engagement have mediate the relationship between social support and school value?
    Method
    This is a non-experimental research with correlational design.
    Participants and procedure
    The statistical population in the study included all the male and female students studying in grade two of a high school in Islamshahar county. Of this population, a sample of 385 students (187 females and 171 males) was selected randomly using cluster sampling technique. The clustering was made according to the students’ school, major, and class. The instruments employed to collect data included perceived social support scale (SSS; Vaux, Philips, Holly, Thomson, Williams & Stewart, 1986), school value questionnaire (SVS; Tuominen-Soini, Salmela-Aro & Niemivirta, 2012), schoolwork engagement questionnaire (SEQ; Salmela-Aro & Upadyaya, 2012) and academic buoyancy questionnaire (ABQ; Dehghanizadeh & Hoseinchari, 1391). All the three tools enjoyed appropriate levels of validity and reliability.
    Results
    Analysis of the information using path analysis (PA) showed that the social support and school value directly predict academic buoyancy. Moreover, schoolwork engagement was found both to have a direct effect on academic buoyancy and to play a mediatory role between, social support and school value in affecting academic buoyancy.
    Discussion
    The findings of the study emphasize the direct and indirect effects of social support and school value on the student's academic buoyancy. Not only does schoolwork engagement have a direct effect on academic buoyancy, but it also acts as a mediatory variable between social support and school value in affecting academic buoyancy. Social support and school value both cause and increase schoolwork engagement and thereby enhance the students’ confidence to overcome challenges and this correspondingly contributes to their success and enhanced academic buoyancy. The role of schoolwork engagement, on the other hand, in predicting academic buoyancy and success could be explained taking into account that students who actively engage in their schoolwork devote high levels of energy and attention to the tasks they perform and remain patient in the face of challenges until they reach success.
    Keywords: Social support, School value, Schoolwork engagement, Academic buoyancy
  • Firooz Mahmoodi *, Farzaneh Sadeghi Pages 24-54
    Introduction
    Active teaching methods refer to approaches that can improve students’ activities and change learning to interactive process, involving activities such as group discussion, problem solving, case studies, role-playing, essay writing, question making, etc. Therefore, the main focus of active teaching process is on the students and their learning requirements.
    Over the past two decades, many researchers have examined the impact of active learning methods on students’ academic achievements in experimentally and semi-
    experimentally designed studies. Most of researcher’s results have shown that using active teaching methods in most cases, led to improvements in the students’ academic achievement. However, in some cases, the results are contradictory and unclear, not giving readers a convincing answer about the impact of active teaching methods on academic achievement. Further undetermined is the extent to which active teaching can affect academic achievement. Applying a meta-analysis approach can help researchers to resolve the existing ambiguities.
    Meta-analysis is a quantitative statistical method for synthesizing and integrating descriptive statistics from primary research studies that address and test the same research question and hypothesis. This method provides many advantages to researchers and policy makers for policy and decision-making purposes. Objectivity, bias reduction, statistical power, improved generalizability, research quality control, and precision of the meta analytic quantitative estimates are examples of such advantages.
    Research questions
    The present meta-analysis study integrates the results obtained from different studies to determine the total effect size of active teaching methods on the student’s academic achievement. The main purpose of this study is to quantitatively combine the results of different studies about the causal relationships between active teaching methods and the students’ academic achievement by using meta-analysis approach.
    Method
    This is a Meta analysis.
    Participants and procedure
    The statistical population in this study included all valid scientific studies in data bases and master-of-science and PhD dissertations that were done using experimental and semi experimental methods to investigate the effectiveness of active teaching methods on students’ academic achievement from 1996 to 2014. The sample, on the other hand, included 37 studies, selected from a body of 70 related research studies to be used in the
    Meta-analysis. To collect data and estimate the effect size of this teaching method, the study adopted Hunter and Schmidt’s approach.
    The studies involved in this research were collected from different data bases such as Iran doc, Scientific information Databases (SID), Iranian magazines, Iranian journals (Magiran), Noorma, Human Science database and dissertations of Tabriz university. After evaluating the inclusion and exclusion criteria (such as focusing on the effectiveness of active teaching for improving student achievement, having the necessary methodological properties, using experimental or semi-experimental designs, availability of the required statistics (e.g. mean, standard deviation, etc.) for estimating effect size, using samples within the age range of 8-18 that did not suffer from any mental disabilities, having been conducted between 1996 and 2014) the selected studies were analyzed with Comprehensive meta-analysis software (CMA).
    Because some studies had used different variables or intervention, they were analyzed several times in the process of meta-analysis so that in the end, 55 effect sizes were extracted from all the selected research. In order to answer research questions regarding the effect size of each intervention, integrative effect size with two models of fixed-effect and random-effect, moderated analysis with 95% confidence interval compared to the weighted average size, funnel plot, sensitivity analysis homogeneity test and S-statistics were used and reported.
    Results
    The result of the present meta-analysis review showed that during the last two decades, many different forms of active teaching methods have been applied, all having a positive and significant impact on the students’ academic achievement with 90% effect size, which according to Cohen scale, suggests a high level of impact. Moreover, taking the gender of participants as a variable, the results revealed that the effect size for the impact of active teaching on female students’ learning was 88 and for male students 86, both being statistically significant at 0.001.
    Discussion
    In sum, based on the results of the present review study, it can be concluded that applying different forms of active teaching could significantly improve the students’ academic achievement.
    Keywords: Active teaching, Active learning, Student's Academic Achievement, Meta-Analysis
  • Morteza Khosronejad, Soudabeh Shokrollahzadeh * Pages 55-93
    Introduction From the outset, P4C?s dialogical foundations were rested upon Socrates method as well as Vygotsky?s developmental concepts of internalization and zone of proximal development. However, there are new rounds of philosophical and psychological critiques, embraced also by the P4C program, interrogating both Socrates dialogical method and Vygotsky?s aforementioned concepts. That is why some scholars of P4C suggest Bakhtinian dialogue as the last alternative for dialogical foundations of P4C.
    Method As far as the method is concerned, this investigation uses the speculative essay as suggested by William. H. Schubert (1991). In a philosophical essay, the essayist wonders, ponders, questions, theorizes, speculates, philosophizes and projects the imagination in an attempt to combine and modify preexisting ideas in a special way. This speculative attitude of philosophical essay makes it also a speculative essay. (Izuegbu, 2011: p 25). Schubert (1991) believes essay is a record of the author speculating and theorizing? one must remember that the essay is a portrayal of the author?s way of reflecting. It is, thus a form of philosophical inquiry put in to writing. (pp 65-66).
    Discussion and Conclusions After raising criticisms to Socrates, Vygotsky and Bakhtin?s approaches to dialogue, we explored an alternative avenue for the dialogical foundations of community of philosophical inquiry (CPI) drawing on decentration theory that can also provide a point of departure for developing a dialogical theory of teaching and learning. In light of this theory, dialogue has two characteristics: firstly, one can consider monologue and dialogue as existing on a continuum, at any point of which, an event fused with ?monologue and dialogue? is passing through. And secondly, identical to monologue and dialogue, dialectics and dialogue are relatively fused at any point. Therefore, what happens in a community of learning is a vacillation between different points of view, that traverse along the same path of vacillation between centration and decentration. Furthermore, this theory holds promise for reconsidering shortcomings of Vygotsky?s internalization and zone of proximal development as psychological foundations of dialogue in CPI. As such, regarding decentration theory, concepts of ?making one?s own? and ?zone of proximal dialogue? are superseded by those of vygotsky?s. The most challenging problem with Vygotsky?s concept of internalization is abolition of decentration in the process of vacillation between centration and decentration. Dominance of parents and teachers? voice as the first voice over the second voice, namely that of the child, student or trainee is the target of some criticisms Vygotsky?s ZPD faces today.
    Keywords: Bakhtin, Socrates, Philosophy for children, fluctuations between centration, decentration, dialogic teaching, learning
  • Abbas Akbari * Pages 94-111
    Introduction
    The scientific study of resilience dates back to the time when it was observed that a number of endangered children had a positive adaptation to their environment (Masten, 2001). These studies sought to find an answer to the question of how some children and young people can be successful and act well when their growth is threatened by factors such as poverty, abuse, war, violence and racism (Wright, Masten and Narayan, 2013). The researcher's eagerness to find an answer to this question has caused attention to resilience in many areas of research (Masten, 2014). According to Maesten (2014), resilience expresses the capacity of a dynamic system for successful adaptation with disturbances that threaten the performance, existence, or growth process of the system. Accordingly, people are considered to be resilience to positive results in spite of their compatibility with known threats (Cicchetti, 2010).
    Resilience is a multi-dimensional structure that is affected by environmental issues (Werner and Smith, 1992; Connor and Davidson, 2003). Therefore, some researchers have tried to identify various aspects of the resilience in specific areas and fields (Sicchetti and Rogosch, 1997). Academic resilience is defined as the ability of a student to deal with academic failures and educational stresses (Martin & Marsh, 2003). Accordingly, students with high academic resilience do their homework better and are more skillfully (Finn and Rock, 1997).
    There is no doubt that humans have a high capacity to tolerate hardships and adapt to changing conditions. But in order to take advantage of this capacity, they need some supportive resources (Southwick, 2014). Hence, family status has been considered a supportive factor (Wieders, 2014), and researchers such as Masten, Cutuli, Janette, Hinz, Obradovic, Wenzel (2014) emphasize the role of the family in relation to academic resilience.
    A model is proposed by Fitzpatrich and Rithchie (1994) about how the family influences children’s expectations, beliefs, and ways of interacting with the world around them. This model, which reflects how parents communicate with their children (Huang, 2010), has two dimensions, namely, conversation orientation and conformity orientation. These dimensions determine how much family members talk about and express their thoughts and feelings.
    In addition to family, another variable expected to be predictive of academic resilience is academic self-efficacy (Keye & Pidgeon, 2013). Self-efficacy is defined as one's belief in his abilities and competencies for the successful completion of a particular assignment (Bandura, 1977). Individuals who possess this feature believe that they can effectively deal with events and situations, and expect to be successful in overcoming obstacles, persevering in work, and often act at a high level. According to Bandura, Pastorelli, Barbaranelli and Caprara (1999), self-efficacy is a multi-dimensional variable and should be evaluated in different domains. Accordingly, they considered three areas of academic, emotional and social self-efficacy. According to Muris (2001), academic self-efficacy expresses a person's ability to learn about learning activities, encompasses curriculum subjects, and fulfills academic expectations. In line with these studies, some studies have also suggested predictive self-efficacy and academic self-efficacy by family communication patterns.
    Hypothesis
    1- Conformity orientation is a negative predictor and conversation orientation is a positive predictor of student's academic resilience.
    2- Academic self-efficacy is a positive predictor of student's academic resilience.
    3- Academic self-efficacy has a mediating role in the relationships between dimensions of family communication and academic resilience.
    Method
    All first-grade high school students in Shiraz who enrolled in the academic year 2013-2014 were taken as the statistical population, of which 291 were selected through multistage cluster random sampling method. To collect the data, family communication patterns scale, Student’s Academic Self-efficacy questionnaire, and Academic Resilience Scale were used. To verify the validity and reliability of the instruments, the internal consistency and Cronbach's alpha coefficient were used, respectively. Using SPSS software, simultaneous multiple regression and Barron and Kenny method were conducted to examine the mediating role of academic self-efficacy.
    Results
    Direct hypothesis examination indicated that: (1) the style conversation orientation was a positive predictor of academic resilience and academic self-efficacy (2) the conformity orientation was a negative predictor of academic self-efficacy (3) academic self-efficacy was a positive predictor of academic resilience. Indirect hypothesis examination indicated that conversation orientation has both a direct and indirect effect on academic resilience. However, conformity orientation only indirectly affects academic resilience. Calculation of the effect size of independent variables on dependent ones indicated that 27 percent of the changes in Academic Resilience, and 19 percent of the changes in Academic Self-Efficacy are explained by the proposed model.
    Discussion and
    Conclusion
    Investigating the mediating role of academic self-efficacy in the relationship of family communication patterns and academic resilience found that academic self–efficacy has a mediating role in the relationship between conversation orientation and academic resilience. This indicates that conversation orientation affects and increases academic resilience both directly and indirectly through the mediation of academic self-efficacy whereas conformity orientation cannot predict academic resilience. This finding demonstrates that families with conversation orientation bring up children with higher academic self-efficacy which correspondingly increases their academic resilience.
    As a result, for increases academic self – efficacy and resilience in children it seems necessary that families accept the possible mistakes of children and create an open space for them to express their feelings and ideas and provide them with a warm and friendly environment for their emotional support.
    Keywords: Family Communication Patterns, Academic Resilience, Academic Self-Efficacy
  • Jalil Etemaad *, Bahram Jowkar Pages 112-130
    Introduction
    In the moral psychological domain, it is important to investigate role of facilitator variables on moral action. Academic dishonesty is a sensitive and prevalent problem in academic contexts. This concept defined as the intent or effort made to illegally use documents and information to obtain academic credentials. Academic dishonesty as an amoral action in such educational contexts as schools and universities. The present research, based on Anderman and Murdak's conceptual model, examined the role of epistemological beliefs in the tendency toward academic dishonesty. Personal epistemology concerns beliefs about knowledge and knowing. Therefore, more empirical research is needed to examine the dimensionality of academic dishonesty and to verify whether the relations between those dimensions and motivational beliefs depends on knowledge and knowing. In other words, it is probable that such beliefs have a regulatory function in determining academic achievement and moral behaviors in educational contexts. In particular, there is a great need to investigate personal epistemology and its relation to academic dishonesty in the Iranian culture.
    Research question
    To this end, the present study aims to investigate the role and contribution of personal epistemological beliefs in determining academic dishonesty and learning outcomes and further to determine the role of gender in this regard. The research questions were: 1-What types of epistemic beliefs are predictive of academic dishonesty? 2-How does gender affect the relationship between epistemological beliefs and academic dishonesty?
    Method
    The present study examined role of epistemological beliefs in predicting academic dishonesty as an indication of moral behaviors and further to verify the role of gender as a mediating variable. The Participants were 370 under graduate students at Shiraz University (276 females and 94 males). The participants completed the epistemic beliefs inventory (Schraw, Bendixen & Dunkle, 2002) and the cheating questionnaire (Khamesaan & Amiri,2011). The software programs used in this study were SPSS19 and WARP8.5. T-test, exploratory factor analysis and correlational analysis were conducted using SPSS, and path analysis was performed with WARP.
    Result
    The dimensionality of the Schraw, Bendixen, and Dunkle’s Epistemological Questionnaire was verified through factor analysis, and the resulting dimensions were examined. The result demonstrated a significant path between components of academic dishonesty (plagiarism, active cheat and passive cheat) and epistemological beliefs (innate ability and quick learning). Moreover, the mediating role of gender in the model was confirmed. The model was fitted the data and the fitness indices were desirable. In fact, the desire in girls to learn more quickly was the variable that could best predict their academic dishonesty. On the other hand, the innate ability was the factor that could best predict active or passive cheating in boys.
    Discussion and
    Conclusion
    In sum, the result of the research supported the role of epistemological beliefs as well as gender in determining moral behaviors. In this regard, the results highlighted the role of gender schema in determining academic dishonesty. Epistemological beliefs predict instances of academic dishonesty in Iranian students and thus play an important role in this educational context. Similarly, naïve realism was found to increase the likelihood of displaying an amoral behavior. It is assumed that by changing beliefs from naive realism to complex relativity, the likelihood of ethical behaviors in academic relationships will increase.
    However, more empirical research is needed to ascertain this issue. However, taking the assumption that by moving from naïve realism toward a more critical and constructive perception, chances of academically dishonest behaviors will decline, the results of the present study have implications for families, teachers, psychologists, and counselors. Primarily, the instructors need to provide atmospheres reinforcing stronger and more authentic beliefs so that they can reduce chances of academic dishonesty, which naïve realism might cause. Moreover, the results of the study imply for counselors and psychologists to consider their clients’ epistemological beliefs, particularly when dealing with their academic dishonesties.
    Keywords: moral action- educational context- personal epistemology- gender selfconcept- academic dishonesty- regulative function
  • Zahra Maarefvand *, Gholamreza Shams, Zahra Sabaghyan Pages 131-167
    Introduction
    Human beings can achieve their goals when they have the right function in their educational programs, and have a scientific and precise plan, providing the students with a better level of learning. The quality of teaching and learning in the university depends on the capabilities of the learning culture. Since human beings, because of the nature of the knowledge of the other disciplines, have certain cultural aspects, it is necessary to research the status of the learning culture of students in these disciplines. According to the literature, the factors and elements of the learning culture of students are distinct, but so far, research has not been done to study the learning culture of the students of humanities in Iran. Therefore, this research was conducted as a pathology of learning culture of these students.
    Research Questions
    The questions of study were those appearing in Survey weakness of Human sciences students learning culture.
    Methods
    This was an applied qualitative case study. In this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 members of the faculty and educational administrators and 18 students of Human sciences. Content analysis was used to analyze and categorize the results of interviews and because the interviews were based on the conceptual framework derived from literature review, the deductive method (top-down) was used in content analysis and categorization of qualitative data.
    Results
    Categories obtained were classified and presented in accordance with the framework of a learning culture at the interactional, individual, and institutional levels. The individual level included factors pertaining to the motivation to learn, the role of the learner, student's expectations of learning, learner tasks. The institutional level considered the appreciation and encouragement of educational innovation, formal and informal rules, improving the quality of the learning context, faculty development, and enhancing the training capacity. The interactive level encompassed issues related to the learning space, content and knowledge structure, goals, media, evaluation of teacher relations with students, faculty, and time frame.
    Discussion and
    Conclusion
    Improving student learning culture represents a valid and valuable educational activity of the humanities educational groups and it can affect the quality of their performance. The results of research is insightful for expanding effective learning in the students of humanities.
    Keywords: Students, Human Sciences, Culture, Learning
  • Mohammad Mehdi Teymouri Asfichi *, Fariba Khoshbakht, Ghorban Hemati Alamdarloo, Ali Teymouri Asfichi, Hossien Etemadi Pages 168-188
    Introduction
    Conformity to a set of moral norms and values is essential for individuals to achieve self-guidance, purposefulness and a sense of flow in their everyday life; otherwise, they will display inconsistent behaviors. This highlights the significance of educating people who conform to right moral values and this issue has been a matter of concern to many scholars and scientists for many years. Indeed, the study of moral development and the cultivation of moral values in contemporary modern societies is quite essential and should be placed on top of the educational agenda.
    In this regard, several researchers highlight the significance of education in developing morally competent individuals. The best way to develop morally competent individuals, Lind (2006) believes, is to provide them with the opportunity to learn the right way to do things; that is, the condition in which they feel secure and can freely express their moral opinions. Hence, the more critical the situation is for the individual’s moral development, the more they require education for that. As a typical instance of such a critical situation, one can refer to intellectual disability.
    Although individuals with intellectual disability undergo the same stages of moral development as do ordinary people, they pass through the stages at a slower pace than do their ordinary peers. Due to the weaknesses in their cognitive abilities and the inadequate heed given to them, these people are more likely to be exploited or to be involved in such crimes as as breaking the law, robbery, rape, or membership in antisocial groups.
    While the moral development of ordinary people has been widely studied in previous research, little heed has been given to that of people with intellectual disability and even in the few studies that have been conducted so far, non-standard instruments have been used to assess the moral development of intellectually disabled people. This highlights the need for devising an instrument for assessing the moral development of people with intellectual disability, based on which an appropriate educational program could be developed. In response, the present study aims to investigate the psychometric properties (validity, reliability and factor analysis) of the Socio-Moral Reflection Measure – Short Form(Gibbs & et al, 1992), in students with intellectual disabilities in Shiraz.
    Research Questions
    1. Is the Socio-Moral Reflection Measure – Short Form (SRM-SF) scale adequately reliable and valid?
    2. How many dimensions is the of Socio-Moral Reflection Measure – Short Form scale composed of?
    Methods
    This study is an applied research. The statistical population of this research included all the secondary students with intellectual disability who were over 16 years old in Shiraz. Participants in the study were, on one hand, 80 students with minor intellectual disability, selected from schools in four different districts, using cluster sampling method. On the other hand, the study involved the participation of 80 students without intellectual disability, selected through randomized matching technique (gender and age) to investigate discriminant validity. The validity of the scale was determined using factor analysis, and checking its internal consistency, face validity and discriminant validity. The reliability of the scale was calculated by test-retest, Cronbach's alpha and inter-rater correlation. The content of scale was analyzed with Principal component analysis.
    Results
    The Result indicated three factors (trust, life and law). The correlation between the dimensions and the total score in all cases was significant and varied between 0/47- 0/87. On the other hand, the reliability coefficient of the scale using Cronbach's alpha was 0/82 for the total scale and 0/77, 0/57, 0 /59 for the first, second and third components, respectively. the reliability coefficient of the scale, assessed through inter- rater correlation, was 0/95 and was 0/91 when test-retest method was used. The results of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and the independent t-test indicated that there were significant differences between the two groups of students both in their total scores for moral judgment and in its various aspects (p
    Discussion
    In this study, different methods were used to assess the validity and reliability of the stated scale. The results showed that the reliability and validity of this scale is acceptable for the Iranian students with intellectual disability. In the present study, the scale questions were analyzed through factor analysis. The results showed three factors, named, respectively "trust", "life", and "law". In the main form of this scale, seven dimensions were identified, while the results of the factor analysis in the present study showed three dimensions. It is worth noting that this scale could discriminate between students with and without intellectual disability both in the overall scores it yielded for moral judgement and in its evaluation of the various dimensions of moral judgment so that students with intellectual disability had lower grades than the normal students. This finding could be taken as evidence corroborating the validity of this scale. The study, nonetheless, has certain limitations. Primarily, the research sample was in the age group of 16 and older, so the generalization of the results to other age groups should be done with caution. Moreover, the sample in this study was selected only from intellectually disabled students in Shiraz; therefore, for the results to be more generalizable, further research is required to be conducted in other cities to explore the psychometric properties of the scale with participants from different ethnicities, language backgrounds, and age groups.
    In the end, based on the analyses conducted on the "short form of reflection of social morality" scale, it can be stated that the scale, used for the first time in Iran, could be employed as a valid and reliable instrument for measuring moral judgment in people with intellectual disability.
    Keywords: Socio-Moral Reflection Measure? Short Form, validity, reliability, factor analysis
  • Maryam Nmazian, Afsaneh Towhidi *, Massod Bagheri Pages 189-205
    Introduction
    Critical thinking refers to self-regulated thinking that involves fair reasoning without any bias or prejudice (Fell & Lukianova, 2015). It is also an active and skillful conceptualization, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of gathered or produced data using observation, experience, deep thinking, argumentation, or communication (King & DeCicco, 2009). The significance of critical thinking is highlighted taking into account that the Holy Quran inspires humans to nurture traits and characteristics that contribute to the growth of spiritual intelligence (Ibrahimi & Azapoor, 1388), and critical thinking is one aspect of spiritual intelligence, through which one seeks to find the right way to live. Indeed, in spiritual intelligence, critical thinking is referred to as critical existential thinking (CET) (King, 2008). Moreover, critical thinking is a kind of problem solving (Naddafi, 1385) and problem solving is an aspect of intelligence in general (Frensch & Funke, 2002), and of spiritual intelligence in particular (Ahmadi, Zamani, &Sarzaym, 2014).
    The significance of spiritual intelligence, and of critical thinking, is further recognized taking maturity in spiritual intelligence (spiritual maturity) an integrated proactive agent (Emmons, 2007), a framework for recognizing and structuring the skills and strengths (Amram, 2009), and an insight that induces tolerance, dauntlessness of life hardship, and allows finding rational humane solutions (Zohar & Marshall, 2008). It is the intelligence individuals use when resolving spiritual or moral value problems; therefore, spiritual intelligence enables one to find goals and a personal meaning for life (Hossainchari & Zakeri, 1388).
    Critical thinking is also related to creativity (DeWaelsche, 2015; Fell & Lukianova, 2015; Perkins, 2005). Indeed, creativity is a complex social, cultural, and psychological process that leads to new meaningful outcomes (Glaveanu, 2009). One significant aspect of creativity is emotional creativity, which together with critical thinking, emotional creativity plays a key role in the process of thinking (Thayer-Bacon, 2000) and is associated with different spiritual experiences (Averill, 2011). Sofar, no research has been conducted in the field of spiritual intelligence and emotional creativity, but researchers relate spiritual intelligence to emotional intelligence (King, 2008; Mayer & Gehe, 1996; Wigglesworth, 2002-2012; Zohar, 2010), and critical thinking to creativity (DeWaelsche, 2015; Fell & Lukianova, 2015; Perkins, 2005). Mayer and Geher (1996) have shown that spiritual intelligence is related to emotional creativity. Nevertheless, Malamiri and Fekrazad suggested that emotional intelligence and creativity are not related to each other. Karimi's results (1390), on the other hand, showed that spiritual intelligence and emotional creativity are the positive predictors of critical thinking disposition. Given the intimacy between cognition and affection, the question that arises here concerns whether instruction on spiritual intelligence could affect the students’ emotional creativity and orientation toward critical thinking. Although there are studies considering the correlation between , for instance, spiritual intelligence and critical thinking or spiritual intelligence and emotional intelligence, there is no research investigating the impact of spiritual intelligence instruction on both critical thinking disposition and emotional creativity.
    Research Questions
    - Does spiritual intelligence instruction have any impact on critical thinking disposition?
    - Does spiritual intelligence instruction have any impact on emotional creativity?
    -
    Method
    This was an experimental research, using a pretest-posttest with control group design. The statistical population was all high school female students in Kerman and the participants were 34 students who were recruited through multi-cluster sampling method and were placed into two groups of experimental and control groups, using simple randomized method. To gather data, Ricket’s critical thinking tendency and Averill’s emotional creativity inventories were used as pretest in both groups. Then, the spiritual instruction as the independent variable (intervention) was conducted only in the experimental group in 10 sessions of 90 minutes each; the control group did not receive any instructions. At the end of instructions, the questionnaires were administered again in both groups as posttests. Data was analyzed using the covariance analysis.
    Results
    Results show that the spiritual intelligence instruction has a positive and meaningful impact on the intervention group’s critical thinking disposition but it has no impact on their emotional creativity.
    Discussion
    The first hypothesis was confirmed and it is concluded that the spiritual intelligence instruction has an impact on critical thinking disposition. This finding is in correspondence with the findings of Azizi (2015), Karimi (1390), and Mollamohammadi and Etemad Ahari (2016). The finding is justifiable in that based on King’s (2008) definition of spiritual intelligence, critical thinking is an aspect of spiritual intelligence and involves problem solving (Naddafi, 1385). In fact, as problem solving is an aspect of cognitive intelligence, spiritual intelligence also entails a type of critical thinking through which individuals can find the right way to live (Ahmadi, Zamani, &Sarzaym, 2014). Critical thinking encompasses all humans’ positive activities (Fodor & Carver, 2000) and spiritual intelligence instruction includes individuals’ spiritual growth which has an impact on their critical thinking disposition.
    The second hypothesis was rejected, indicating that instruction on spiritual intelligence has no impact on emotional creativity. No analogous research was found in the literature, according to which the results could be explained; however, a probable explanation might be the vagueness of the questions to the students that did not allow them to interpret them appropriately. Another explanation could be that both spiritual intelligence and emotional creativity are essentially complex issues (Amiri and Partabian, 1395) that are hard to comprehend (Averill, 2011). The studies conducted so far have reached different results (Karimi, 1392; Malamiri & Fekr azad, 2015; Mayer & Geher, 1996), which could be due to the use of different methodologies, instruments, or statistical population. Another probable explanation is in differences in some aspects of emotional creativity (Kanhai, 2014), uniqueness of the construct, and the existence of different kinds of creativities (Lim, 2005). It is recommended that this research be conducted in other academic levels, including university levels, on males, in other cities, with shorter questionnaires and more understandable items. It is further suggested that critical thinking and spiritual intelligence workshops be conducted for teachers and students.
    Keywords: Spiritual Intelligence Instruction, Critical Thinking Disposition, Emotional Creativity
  • Hussein Meihami *, Pouria Dasmeh, Mohammad Ramin Bastan Pages 206-229
    Introduction
    To handle challenges in their lives, human beings need to be creative. Due to the important role of creativity in human life, many scholars (e.g., de Bono, 1986; Guliford, 1967, Torrance, 1990) started to conduct studies to investigate different aspects of creativity. Hence, new perspectives are constantly added to creativity and the way one can enhance it. The present study was an attempt to investigate the effect of teaching creativity on high school students’ cognitive related aspects of creativity including observation ability, thinking ability, data analysis, coherent thinking, identification of in-text relationships, and using schemata. This study was an investigation to answer the following research questions:Research Questions
    1. Does teaching creativity to high school students have any significant effect on the cognitive-related aspects of their creativity when doing the project based tasks individually?
    2. Is there any statistically significant deference between females and males when doing the project-based tasks individually?
    3. Does teaching creativity to high school students have any significant effect on the cognitive-related aspects of their creativity when doing the project based tasks individually?
    4. Is there any statistically significant deference between females and males when doing the project-based tasks collaboratively?
    Method
    Participants in this study were 73 students high school students (33 females and 40 males) with 14 to 16 years of age, who were selected through purposive sampling according to whether they had previously attended any extracurricular activities held at school. These students had enrolled in the seasonal school of creativity held by Fars Elite Foundation, whose purpose is to increase the students’ creativity. In these workshops, the students generally learn how to observe the environment around themselves, how to detect problems, how to brainstorm for the problems, and how to evaluate their ideas to select one as a solution to the observed problem. The study used the one-group, pre-test post-test design in which the researchers assessed the creativity of the students before and after the instructions through task-based assessment. The pretest was a project-based task examining the students’ level of creativity with regard to the cognitive aspects of creativity, including the ability to observe, analyze data, think coherently, identify in-text relationships, and use schemata. Following that, the workshops started and the students took part in different workshops. At the end of the program, a post-test was administered in which the students were asked to provide their responses to another project-based task examining the aforementioned factors. A scale was designed to assess the tasks based on the stated criteria. Two raters assessed the responses provided by the students through the given rating scale. To reduce misunderstandings, the two raters practiced using the scale before they applied it to evaluate the tasks. Using Cramer Correlation Coefficient, interrater reliability was assessed between the two raters. With r = .82, the results suggested a high degree of agreement based on Cohen (1998).
    Results
    The results revealed that the creativity instruction had a statistically significant effect on the cognitive aspects of both male and female students, no matter whether they accomplished the tasks individually or collaboratively. That said, the results indicated that all of the six factors including observation ability, thinking ability, data analysis, coherent thinking, identification of in-text relationship, and using schemata increased more significantly for female students in the post-test, especially when they performed on the tasks individually. However, coherent thinking of the boys did not show any statistically significant differences in the post-test when they did the tasks individually. Moreover, no statistically significant difference was seen in the collaborative performance between female and male students while doing the tasks.
    Discussion
    There are different reasons for the obtained information. First of all, based on Schmidt’s (2010) awareness hypothesis, one can argue that when students participated in the workshops with thinking and creativity essence, they became aware of creativity and thinking strategies, which they applied in the post-test task. On top of this, the “hands on policy” used to instruct the students might have helped them to enhance their criticality in thinking and creativity. Finally, the syllabus design of the seasonal schools of creativity and ideation might have contributed to the students’ enhanced creativity when performing on the second tasks. This could be insightful for the instruction of creativity. The findings bear some implications for teaching and promoting creativity in high school students.
    Keywords: Instructing Creativity, Cognitive Factors, Ideation, Observation Ability
  • The Relationship between Learning Styles and Research Morale in High School Students
    Maryam Shafiei Sarvestani *, Jafar Jahani, Seyyed Rouhollah Mousavi Pour Pages 230-244
    Introduction
    One of the most important components of the learning process is the learning styles of learners that should be identified by teachers. Identifying these components and attempting to modify or adapt education with them has several advantages for students and the whole teaching process. Therefore, considering the learning styles causes students to participate more enthusiastically in class activities and to be more confident in answering questions asked by the teachers. One of the important implications of learning styles is its impact on the students’ research capability and research morale. Research aim This study aimed to investigate the relationship between learning styles and research morale among students in the second grade of high school in Shiraz.
    Research Questions
    1. Is there a significant relationship between learning styles and research spirit among the second-grade high school students?
    2. Is learning style a significant predictor of research spirit in the second-grade high school students?
    Method
    The statistical population in this study included all the students in the second-grade high school in Shiraz (N=29980), studying in the academic years 2015- 2016. The sample in this study, on the other hand, consisted of 345 male and female students in Shiraz, randomly selected through multi-stage cluster sampling technique from a school for boys and one for girls in each of the four educational districts. The research tools included Kolb’s learning style questionnaire and the research morale questionnaire by Mohammadsharifi. The resultant data was analyzed using SPSS and Lisrel software programs.
    Results
    The results revealed a significant relationship between convergent and divergent learning styles with research morale. Besides, the multiple regression analysis suggested that the convergent and divergent learning styles were strong predictors for research morale. Furthermore, results indicated that the most dominant learning style among the students was the convergent learning style. It was also found that research morale of students was higher than the average. In this regard, no difference was found between the research morale of male and female students.
    Conclusion
    The findings of this study demonstrated the significance of learning styles in developing research morale and confirmed the hypothesis that both convergent and divergent styles should be considered in learning.
    Keywords: Learning Styles, Research Morale, Divergent, Convergent, Assimilation, Adaptive, Accommodative Learning Styles