نشریه علوم اجتماعی
سال چهاردهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 30، پاییز و زمستان 1396)

In the current nuclear type of family, as the most common type in Iran, three social roles can be found: wife, husband, and child. Wives and husbands have also the roles of mothers and fathers, respectively. In recent years, many scholars have warned about the increasing rate of divorce in Iran. If one considers this increasing rate along with the relatively strong sense of hate about divorce, it seems that there should be much more discord actions inside families. Discord action is defined as the intentionally aggressive action against one of other members of the family. The main question is what structural characteristics of the family are responsible for this rate of discord actions. Although it is known that the conflicts between couples is mainly based on many personal and social characteristics (Mansourian & Fakhraee, 2007), this research is focused on the structural properties of the whole family. Theoretical framework: Discord actions, when turn into a pathologic form, may affect the exclusive functions of the family including the emotional and social support, which makes the grounds for the inherent violence (Kaffashi 2009). The insecure family may bring much social disequilibrium (Golchin, 2002) and affect other parts of the society. A nonfunctional family may result in disorders in the members’ personality (Saadati & Dinaee, 2010). Therefore, studying discord actions in the Iranian families has a significant importance.
The social position of the husband who also takes the role of a father is crucial since in many cases he is the one who makes important decisions (Moosavi, 2002; Safiri & Ghafoori, 2009). This actor is commonly considered as the most powerful actor inside a family (Parvizi et al., 2009).
A family contains a set of social positions plus roles and statuses such as husband, wife, father, mother, child, sister, and brother. Of course, in non-nuclear families the number and definition of the social positions may change. For example, in an extended family there are some other positions like father in-law, mother in-law, daughter in-law, brother in-law, and sister in-law. However, in the nuclear family these positions do not exist within the core family.
The equilibrium in the familial system can be explained by the following factors:• The definition of roles and the relationships among them
• The relationship between roles and statuses
• The calibration of roles and statuses with the personality of the actor
• The relationship between roles and the organisms of the actor
It is obvious that any perturbation in any of the above items can affect the other parts. The social system of the family is at middle level, thus, it is not just the study of interactions or its sub systems. The family system is under the influence of culture and sub cultures. It influences the personalities of its members and their actions.
A family at its first stages includes just the social roles of being wife and husband. Any social position possesses a set of responsibilities along with some advantages. Social status includes a set of norms that determine the level of scarce resources that are assigned to a social position (Boudon, 2006, p. 13). The present study addresses the disequilibrium in the social system of the family using the concepts of social roles in social organizations. In fact, the discord actions of men in the family is considered using disorders in the family as a system. To do so, first the main following concepts should be defined.
• Inconsistent interpretations of the roles: The social definitions of social roles are not that exact and clear as not to leave any apace for different interpretations (Boudon, 2004, p. 79).
• Roles ambiguity: It happens in an organization when one’s responsibilities are not clearly defined and others’ expectations from her/him are not explicit.
• Role stress is the high pressure on a person because of others’ expectations.
• Value inconsistency among family members, which originates from cultural differences among one’s family and her/his peer group.
• Inconsistency between role and status: refers to the non-proportionate relationship between roles related to a social position and its statuses.
• Unfulfillment of the desires of other members of the family, which refers to the gap between wishes and the real attainments.

The data are gathered through a social survey. The population of the study were families in eight large cities of Iran including Tehran, Mashhad, Kermanshah, Khoramabad, Yazd, Ghom, Karaj, and Rasht. In these families, there were a husband and a wife with at least one son and one daughter. The sample size was restricted to 944 families due to the financial support of the research. The selected families were chosen through random quota method in different areas of all cities. Each member of the family had a separate questionnaire. Four questionnaires were conducted to each family. In sum, the mean age of husbands, wives, sons, and daughters’ were 48.4, 42.0, 18.45, and 18.01, respectively. The mean of education level by years for these respondents were 10.9, 9.46, 11.00 and 11.14, respectively.

To check the structural model explaining the discord actions of men in Iranian families, one third of the original sample was randomly selected. This is common in Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis since the total chi-square of the model is highly dependent on the sample size.
The chi-square of the model and the degree of freedom are 328.47 and 110, respectively. Their ratio is 2.99, which is not in the desirable domain for this statistic. On the other hand, RMSEA is much less than 0.10 indicating that the model fits well. As Browne and Cudeck (1993) suggest the higher value of more than 0.10 for RMSEA shows the weak fit of the model.
There are two other statistics of model fit in SEM, which are AGFI and GFI. GFI is equivalent to R-square in multiple regression models (Tanaka & Huba, 1989). Then, the desirable values for them are the ones close to one. The lower boundary of these two for a good model is 0.9. In our model, GFI is 0.96 and AGFI is 0.95, which are both proper. All t statistics of paths in the model are more than 1.96, which means they are significant.

As we have expected, the most significant explaining factor of men’s discord actions in the family was the existence of conflicting definitions for the father and the husband role. In the current status of the Iranian society, which is in the middle intense cultural changes, all family members receive numerous messages by various media. Most media propagate western values of the family roles while weakening the Iranian and traditional family roles.
The father and the husband role have different definitions in the traditional Iranian culture and the western one, while the current Iranian status stands in the middle. Younger members of families mostly believe in western values and elder ones believe in traditional Iranian values. A similar conflict can be found between wife and husband as well. These leads to the mutual dissatisfaction among family members, while no one intends to bother others. They try to do their best by failing to satisfy other family members. This situation result in a dead end in couples’ relationships as they themselves have expressed, “we have nothing in common” or “we do not understand each other”. Resolving this problem is dependent to cultural coordination among family members. The ban on media seems to be impossible, yet some preventive actions can reduce the inappropriate consequences. Considering the cultural identity of couples at the frist steps of marriage can be one of these actions. If husbands and wives have almost the same cultural values and definitions of their roles in the family, they can understand each other at higher level by bringing a few cultural changes to their lives

World Health Organization has defined health in 1948 as “welfare of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not just being sick or disabled”. (Officialreport of the World Health Organization, 2002, p. 100).According to this definition, health is a “state of complete physical, mental and social well-being”, (WHO, the international health conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946) and accordingly, social well-being is one of the aspects of individual’s public health. Individuals’ health is one of the basic foundations of a balanced society and clearly the survival of any society depends on its members. Health has a direct impact on individual’s quality of life; hence, that’s why scientists have considered health issuesfor a long time andconducted many studies on physical and mental health. However, social well-being is one of the most important aspects of health that has been ignored and less attention has been paid to it by researchers.

Theoretical Framework: In this study, Keyes’s (1998) theory has been taken as a definition model and the framework to provide indicators of social well-being. According to Keyes (1998), social well-being refers to the appraisal of one’s own circumstances and functioning in society. Keyes defined five dimensions of social well-being, namely, social integration, social acceptance, social contribution, social realization and social coherence. Social integration consists of individuals’ appraisal of the quality of their own relation with society and community. It refers to the degree to which people feel they have something in common with others and they belong to their own community, in contrast to feelings of isolation and loneliness. Social acceptance refers to positive attitudes toward other people.Individuals who get a higher score on this dimension trust others and have favorable opinions on the human nature. Social contribution refers to the feeling of being a vital member of the society, with something important to offer to the world. Social actualization is the evaluation of the potentials of society and social groups, and corresponds to the idea that society has potentials that can come true by institutions and citizens. Social coherence refers to the perception of the quality and the organization of social world, and reflects a sense that social life and society are meaningful and intelligible.

The study population included all students at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in the academic year 2012 that were selected using stratified sampling with an estimated sample size of 379. The instruments of the study were Keyes’s (1998) Social Well-being Scale,Hiobner’s(1991) Life Satisfaction Scale, and Social Support Scale as well asdemographic information of participants. The participantswere randomly selected from 15 faculties based on academic disciplines, gender, and the number of students enrolled in each faculty. The Reliability of the scales were assessed by Cronbach's alpha and all of the scales were above 0.70; as a result, it indicated that the questionnaireswere reliable. Furthermore, Factor Analysis was used to assess the validity of the questionnaires. Accordingly, the findings showed thatall five dimensions of social well-being loaded truly on their factor in accordance with Keyes theory.

The respondents were 22.7 years oldin average (176male and 203 female). The majority of students were single (about 77 percent). In this study, the mean score of social well-being is 65.7. In otherwords, it can be concluded that the social well-being of Ferdowsi university students is above average. The students hit the highest point of social well-being in social integration dimension and also the minimum score was in the dimension of social acceptance. There was no significant relationship between gender and dimensions of social well-being, except for social actualization. The results show that some variables including age, marital status, and membership in student associations, being satisfied with life, and having social support affect social well-being. The result of regression analysis shows that three variables including age, satisfaction with life and social support affect social well-being simultaneously. Multiple correlation coefficient factors affecting social well-being is 0.51, coefficientof determinationis 0.26, and adjusted coefficientof determination is 0.25.   The average social well-being scores show that Ferdowsi University students are in a good position in this case. Among five dimensions, respondents have got the highest score in social integration and with a little difference in social contribution while they have got the lowest score in social acceptance. Social integration represents the evaluation of the quality of individual’s relationship with the community; a high level of this dimension represents a sense of belonging to the community and believing to common things between people and community.The results about social acceptance illustrates that students have not a positive attitude toward the people; in other words, it shows the low level of social trust among them. In this research, it is approved that social support, as the most influential variable, can play an important role in improving student’s social well-being. Thus, it is necessary that family and university pay attention to this matter. In addition, university can improve the social well-being of students by facilitating student’s communications with each other and with student’s associations

The issue of inter-ethnic relations and interactions is considered as one of the most important social and political issues in multi-ethnic countries. The reason is that weakening or strengthening of relations between ethnic groups, and as a result, weakening or strengthening of national integrity in a country is affected by the intensity of the ethnic tendencies of different groups (ethnicity). Therefore, it is important to study such an issue in Iran, as a country that has hosted multiple ethnic groups with different cultural, linguistic and religious backgrounds for so long, and whose integration is largely due to the peace and coexistence of these ethnic groups.
The present article investigates the following issue. While the young population of the region faces a variety of new collective identities as a result of facing with the modern world and its implications including the spread of communication technologies, and the expansion of real and virtual communication between different cultures, this study seeks to investigate the degree of ethnicity among young people aged between 18 and 29, and to examine how important the role of social capital is.

Theoretical Framework: Putnam (2000), with a simple analogy, uses the terms intra-group and inter-group associations (Adibi Sadeh, Yazdkhasti, Rabbani Khorasgani, & Abbaszadeh, 2009) to distinguish between the two main types of social capital. The limited or old social capital, which is introduced as the social capital of interconnectedness, links members of homogeneous groups (from collective aspects, such as age, gender, ethnicity, religion, social class, etc.), and ultimately leads to the formation of exclusive, limited and specific identities (Gadgarzadeh & Shafienia., 2012). In contrast, new or bridge-forming social capital (i.e., intergroup) refers to social networks that link and connect unconnected individuals of different parts of society and cause unbiased and open identities (Putnam, 2000).
As outlined above, the topic of intra-group and inter-group social capitals has a relationship with the network concepts that emerged in sociology, during the 1970s. Granovetter’s (1973) work on the strength of weak ties is one of the good examples of network relationships. He distinguishes between strong ties, which is the bond between close friends with close connections, and weak links, which is the bond between a set of distant acquaintances (Granovetter, 1973, 1982). Indeed, Granovetter believed that the cohesive relationship among the members of the group leads to poor relations with members of foreign groups, and reduce social capital. In contrast, weak intra-group ties create relationships with outside individuals and groups, and thus create social capital (Salehi Amiri, 2006).

This study is a cross-sectional survey. The statistical population consisted of all young people aged between 18 and 29 years old living in Tabriz. For this study, 384 out of 381551 individuals were selected as sample (Statistical Center of Iran in 2011). The instrument used to collect the data was a closed-ended questionnaire, whose validity and reliability were estimated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient with the help of a sample of 30 people before the final implementation.

Findings show that the level of ethnicity in the society is moderate. Furthermore, the rate was significantly higher among men than women. The results and findings of the first research question showed that there is no significant relationship between social cohesion and ethnicity while the significance level of the other two dimensions of social capital (p

  Over the last decades, many researchers have noticed the fact that one aspect common to all human beings is that they are consumers and they consume resources to meet their real or unrealistic needs. Consumerism, as a social process, appeared in the 20th century while extending to the third world and developing countries and even rural areas. It has affected all aspects of human life including those of the villagers. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the consequences of consumerism, which is a kind of social harm in various economic and social dimensions. Therefore, this study made attempts to investigate the impact of consumerism on rural areas as a phenomenon arising from the rapidly expanding globalization and to analyze its effects on social relations of the villagers. Thus, the study seeks to examine and analyze the impact of rural consumerism on social and economic dimensions as well as its effects on changing their individual and social relationships. Accordingly, the main research question is to what extent has rural consumerism changed the social relationships among the villagers of the study area?

Theoretical framework In the sociology of consumerism, three categories of theories are attributed to the consumer society. The first category includes those who advocate Baudrillard (1984) and believe that consumers and objects associate positions in the system of objects and goods in the social world. The second category advocates Douglas and Isherwood(1979) and argue that consumers use goods for building a smart world and developing and maintaining social relationships; the third category advocates the ideas of those like Pierre Bourdieu, Veblen(1984), and Simmel who believe that consumers’ attempt to use goods is an attempt to demonstrate their social differentiation. Nevertheless, all theories believe that consumerism in any form and scale is viewed as a widespread phenomenon in the contemporary world, which often affects the human life. consumerism in general causes a change in social relations that has negative consequences such as creating greed, urbanization and migration, creating a feeling of deprivation, individualism and social rupture, all of which have other negative consequences for the village, such as rural-urban immigration, abandoned villages, increased suburbanization in large cities, inattention to production, etc. which have totally hindered the development.

The present research is an applied one being conducted with a descriptive-analytical method. The data were collected using questionnaires, observation, and interviews. Independent variable (consumerism) was quantified in social dimensions with 13 indicators, economic dimensions with 14 indicators, and dependent variable (social relations) with 11 indicators. The study was done in Radekan Rural District (central district of Chenaran). There are 1580 households in the sample villages. According to Cochran formula and with the error rate of 0.07%, the sample size for households in the sample villages was 175, which was calculated with regard to the number of households in each village. The samples in each village were selected based on simple random sampling method. Using SPSS package, descriptive and inferential statistics (Pearson & Spearman correlation test, single sample t-test, multivariate regression, and Chi-Square) were executed to analyze the data. Grayscale analysis was used to rank the rural areas in terms of consumerism (the weighing used in the analysis of the Gray-matter relationship in the FAHP model), was used to rank the rural areas in terms of consumerism, and GIS was used to show the ranks obtained from the Gray-matter analysis.

Examining the mean of the variables for each village revealed that the highest mean of socioeconomic dimension belonged to the variable of “consumerism and social relations” of Ghezel Hesar village, and the lowest mean of dimensions and research variables belonged to Abgahy village.
Besides, in theses villages, the social relations of villagers who have been affected by consumerism have not been in a good status. The relationship between consumerism and its dimensions and social relationships in the study is significant. The regression results showed that consumerism has changed the social relations of the sample villages. The Gray relational analysis model showed that the villages of Moghan and Abgahy had more consumption tendencies, while Muchan and Ghezel Hesar villages had less consumption than other villages.

The increasing consumerism has paved the way for changing the social relationships among the villagers, as in some of the villages of the study, villagers are building luxury houses, while the capital that could be used for rural development, makes it way into consumerism and luxury life and leads to negative consequences such as growing greed, urbanization, migration, creating the feeling of deprivation, individualism and the social class split among rural households.
Therefore, according to the research findings, the following suggestions can be made:• The first and most important step in reducing the harmful effects of consumerism of in the community is to promote the level of public awareness and change their attitudes towards life;
• To increase the public participation and raise the public awareness towards the proper use of facilities and resources;
• To change the consumption system commensurate with indigenous and local culture;
• To reform the national educational system.

Body management is a social and cultural issue, which has received significant intensity and development with the expansion of the modern communication and information channels, as a means of hardware for cultural globalization (Anderson, 2004). Rise of global communication and access to the novel communication and information channels has caused a great variety of cultural variations in numerous groups and layers of societies, particularly, between the young people. By exposing young people to various visions and patterns, their development in various socioeconomic fields, and especially, in scientific centers has become more influenced by this process. Similar to other processes, this process has a dialectical relationship with the youth and they react to it variously. One impact of today communication technologies on the young is the variation in the production and reproduction processes by which the young people define themselves and their body.
Easy access to satellite and other communication technologies have provided young people in the society with new ways and lifestyles What has made the current situation significant is the contrast between the new life styles and the cultural, religious and indigenous texture of this region. Such changes have made the investigation of body management, its scientific knowledge and factors influencing its changes very important. Therefore, considering the new conditions and events, these questions arise as to whether there is any significant relationship between the use of mass media among young people in Urmia and body management, which indicates a new type of consumption and lifestyle.
 Theoretical Framework: Mass media have transmitted and directed a wide range of symbols, norms, values, beliefs, messages and thoughts within communities, as some scholars believe that mass media transforms the entire cultural and social life (Thomson, 1995). With regard to the relationship between mass media and the attitudes of individuals, one can use social theory of cultivation and learning. The hypothesis of both theories is that a significant amount of what people know about social life is more achieved through their mediation rather than their direct experience (Khajenoori, 2010). Research based on the theory of cultivation has shown that watching television more often brings up an attitude that is consistent with television rather than the truth. Television has long-term effects on the viewer's vision, which is indirect, gradual, but small, and exponential.
According to Grebner(1999), the importance of the media is in creating common ways of selection and looking at events. He calls this process cultivating dominant ideas. In fact, the media tends to offer identical and fairly consistent narratives of social domains and to adapt its audience to "acculturation". Cultivation implies acceptance and internalization of the television and media attitudes by audiences and viewers. Therefore, from the viewpoint of this theory, it can be assumed that those who have more media consumption, compared with those who use less media, are more oriented toward life styles displayed in the television and other visual-audiovisual media (Morgan & Signorli, 2002).

In terms of control and the content, the present study is a survey work. As per the time dimension, it is cross-sectional type, and with respect to the purpose, it is applied. In terms of the domain, it is micro-type, because the unit of analysis is an individual (young people). In this research, a researcher-made questionnaire was used to collect the data. The statistical population in the present study included 55218 young people aged 20-30 years old who were living in Urmia. Using the Cochran formula, a sample size of 383 was obtained. Finally, 390 questionnaires were completed and analyzed to increase the accuracy of sampling. In this research, multi-stage cluster sampling method was used. The Cronbach's alpha method was employed to examine the reliability of the questionnaire, which was based on the completion of a number of questionnaires completed before the final implementation in the pre-test.
4. Findings
There is a significant relationship between the use of Iranian TV channels and the management of body. That is, the less the television networks in Iran decreases, the importance of the standards of body management in individuals will increase and more people will pay attention to their bodies. The correlation coefficient between the mode of body management of individuals and the rate of use of television networks in Iran is -0.19. The correlation coefficient between body management method and the use of satellite television networks is 0.24. Furthermore, the correlation coefficient between body management style and the Internet usage rate is 0.11.
5. Discussion and In this research, by referring to the most theoretical perspectives and empirical sources available, and using the results of the literature review to analyze the relationship between media consumption and youth body management, the theoretical framework of the research was set. Based on this framework, major research hypotheses were prepared and tested. As the consumption of domestic media increases, body management decreases. According to empirical data, women who were more frequent target audience for television and home radios had a low tendency to manage their body.
The findings also showed a significant and positive relationship between the use of satellite television and the Internet, and body management. As a result, increasing the use of external media leads to the increase of body management. In general, foreign media, such as the Internet and the satellite put more emphasis on body management as a form of cultural guidance and control. These findings are in line with the research of Fatehi and Ekhlasi (2008), Azad Armaki and Chavoshian (2002) and Ghaderzadeh, Ghaderzadeh and Hassanpanah (2012), who state that there is a relationship between type of mass media and body management

In the modern society, identities are highly fluid, interconnected, and instable. In the majority of cases, such fluidity and instability are the results of worldwide media in terms of modern connections and information. These media are constantly striving to weaken and destabilize identities. Consequently, the issues present in the society regarding identities involve the fact that the Iranian identity has been degrading in all aspects, becoming more inconspicuous day by day, especially among teenagers and youngsters. In the present era, the seamless identities of teenagers and youngsters have been transformed into scattered identities under the influence of modern media. As a result, given the absence of a correct understanding of the impacts of media and modern connection technologies such as the internet, cellphones, and satellites on teenagers and youngsters, the related issues caused by these media cannot be confronted logically and scientifically. To this end, the main purpose of the present inquiry is to study the impact of globalizing modern media on national and the religious identities of teenagers and youngsters along with its related challenges.

Theoretical Framework According to Giddens (2000), Castells and Barker (2009), identity is a social construct rather than an inherent notion. Jean Baudrillard(1970) also suggests that the lack of foundations of the world in modern era has led to chaos, absence of identity, and disorder amongst humans. Esther (2003) and Pasteur (1998) have spoken of the freedom and abandonment of individuals from physical, spiritual, and character related features in virtual environments; Giddens (2000), Tate (2005), and Fortune (2001) have asserted the possibility of more individualism occurring in people as a result of worldwide media. Overall, theorists in the area of virtual environments can be classified into three groups including the pessimists, optimists, and moderates. Nonetheless, employing a single-dimensional view of the subject cannot provide the necessary means to explain the subject at hand. As a result, the present study seeks to incorporate a realistic perspective regarding the relationship between worldwide media and the national religious identities of individuals. The result of the study could demonstrate whether the impacts of such media on national and religious identities are negative or positive. Subsequently, every outlook on the matter is presented in this study so as to identify a dominant view based on the results.

The present study was conducted using the survey method in which data collection was carried out through questionnaires. The validity of religious and national identity questionnaires was examined and confirmed using the face validity method; the reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha suggests an acceptable, high reliability scale of 0.88 and 0.92 for the religious and national identities, respectively. The total population of the study included more than 454589 teenagers and youngsters living in Tabriz city. Of this number, 400 were selected for the study according to Cochran’s formula. In this regard, random cluster sampling was used. Ultimately, the SPSS software (ver. 21) was used to analyze the collected data.

Findings The results of descriptive analysis showed that the extent of adherence to the components of national and religious identities among teenagers and youngsters are at a desirable level, with a mean percentage of 80.5 and 76.7 for national and religious identities, respectively. The inferential findings demonstrate the fact that individuals who use the internet, satellite, and cellphones are of weaker religious and national identities compared to those who do not use such media. Modern media such as the internet, cellphones, and satellite involve a significant, negative impact on the extent of teenagers and youngsters’ adherence to the components of national identity. Meanwhile, the impact of using satellite TV channels on the extent of adherence to the religious identity was negative and significant, with other media having no significant effects. The results of the model suggest that among the variables of the study, the extent of using satellite and age demonstrate 4.2% of changes in the extent of adherence to religious identity components whereas variables of using cellphones, satellites, and age describe 4.7% of changes in the extent of adherence to national identity in youngsters. Discussion andConclusion According to the results of the study, worldwide media such as the internet, satellite, and cellphones are considered as one of the major sources that influence the national and religious identities of teenagers and youngsters; albeit, such an influence on their identities have been mainly negative. In the long term, media places individuals’ understanding and awareness under influence through culturalization processes. Since modern media such as the internet, satellite, and cellphones are considered as the most visited among teenagers and youngsters, they have definitely been successful in inviting this group of people to socialize in their own cultural contexts. As a result, it is recommended to prepare continuous programs based on reinforcing various components of religious and national identities within domestic media as well as virtual environments and satellite TV channels in order to take a bold step toward reducing the influence of worldwide media on national and religious identities.

  This article seeks to clarify how the social knowledge transforms into the other theoretical constructs, and what factors affect the emergence of such transformations.

Theoretical Framework There is considerable literature in regard to the subject of this research. In general, from the perspective of many sociologists of knowledge, social knowledge has important links with its historical and sociological contexts as well as with its function. However, it seems that with regard to how and why social knowledge departs from the above characteristics and how its relation with its historical, social, and functional conditions is decreased, the issue is still a debate. Karl Mannheim (1976), C. Wright Mills (2015), Alvin Gouldner (1988), Abdulkarim Soroush (1996b), Michael Burawoy (2008), Mohammad Mujtahid Shabestari (1996), P. L. Berger & T. Luckmann (1966) and other thinkers and sociologists have mentioned the effects of certain variables in this regard. What matters in relation to the question of this research is that it seems that through the creation of convergence between these theories, one can outline the processes of social knowledge transformations while identifying its underlying factors. Using the library data, the study is conducted within the framework of the meta-analysis of the existing theories. Inspired by existing theoretical literature, three main pathways for the transformations of social knowledge have been drawn. Then, in order to evaluate the factors influencing the formation of these transformations, the variables involved are analyzed within the two groups of objective and subjective factors.

4-1. The process of transforming social knowledge into dogmatism
Whenever the cognitive and motivational foundations of Social knowledge evolve over time, but the statements of such knowledge remain unchanged, social knowledge transforms into dogmatism. It seems that the major causes of dogmatism are first the objective, and second the subjective ones. Objective factors include: 1) The entry of the dogmatist people into the circle of bearers of Social knowledge 2) Effect of power relations 3) Inattention of bearers of ideology to the changes of external environment. The subjective factors are: 1) Lack of verifying the correctness or the effectiveness of social knowledge during the time via rational-scientific methods 2) Mental desire towad stability and avoidance of any change.
4-2. The process of transforming social knowledge into alienation
Alienation occurs when the cognitive and motivational foundations of the social knowledge evolve in terms of the sociological status, but knowledge tends to conform to the former status rather than to a change in accordance with the changes of motivational and cognitive foundations. The contributing factors in this regard are very similar to those of the transformation of social knowledge into the dogmatism. The objective causes of this phenomenon are: 1) The effect of alienated people among the bearers of social knowledge, in regard to the reproduction of alienation 2) the impact of power relations 3) Relative disconnection of the companions of ideology from the external environment. The subjective factors include: 1) lack of a systematic and rational-scientific investigation of correctness or efficiency of social knowledge regarding new sociological status 2) Mental tendency toward stability and avoidance of probable mistakes.
4-3. The process of transforming social knowledge into instrumentalism
It seems that the purpose and function of social knowledge is the transcendence of mankind. If such an attribute of social knowledge is eliminated, this knowledge will not have one of the main and necessary indicators of its validity. It is clear, however, that at many times the goals of social knowledge are determined by the owners of power, and in the same way, in many cases, social knowledge is under the control of the interests and demands of the powerful elite. In that case, social knowledge is transformed into instrumental knowledge. The main causes of this phenomenon are the entry of the instrumentalists into the circle of the bearers of knowledge, the reproduction of instrumentalist relations in epistemological frames, the overall effect of the linkage of power and knowledge, and the irrational socialization of the scholars in the field of the ultimate purpose of knowledge production, especially in the contemporary society. Besides, the subjective causes of such phenomenon are the lack of rational judgment in the field of the ends of knowledge and the fear of the powerful elites’ reaction.

Suggestions: According to the findings of the research, the continuous assessment of historical validity, sociological validity, and functional validity of social knowledge to prevent its inadvisable transformation into dogmatism, alienation, and instrumentalism is recommended. Also, the researcher suggests doing some appropriate empirical research to measure the abovementioned theoretical results.

Recent organizational research has shown that about 70 percent of learning in educational systems occurs through informal communication and interactions (Sharipour, 2005). The absolute value of education and its various components, such as textbooks, teaching methods, and the socio-psychological environment governing the classroom and school can play an important role in building and strengthening the social capital of the students. Also, many education professionals believe that challenging and at the same time supportive educational environments can facilitate students' academic achievement (Cleifton& Roberts, 1993). For this reason, schools can be rich only when their social relations can challenge the student at a scientific and intellectual levelon the one hand, and can provide a lot of social support to the studentson the other hand. This type of social relationship positively and significantly affects the behavior of the students and their performance (Achevory, Clifton,& Roberts, 2001).
Considering that social capital affects the relations between students and their trust,it can be effective in their academic achievement as well. Given that so far no study has been done to examine the social capital in high school students in Tehran, this study is aimed to investigate the status of social capital, its dimensions and indicators in the first grade high school students in Tehran as a case study of hidden curriculum. In so doing, first, the concept of social capital, dimensions and indicators will be described. Second, in light of a field study, the research questionswill be responded.

Theoretical Framework: Social capital is the set of actual and potential interests that comes with the membership in social networks of the actors and organizations, namely, a set of informal norms or values that the members of a group who have the permission for cooperation share (Fukuyama, 2001).
Social capital in general includes institutions, relationships, tendencies, values, and norms that govern the behavior and interactions among the individuals (Grotter& Van Beltler, 2001). In other words, social capital is one of the networks and norms that enable individuals to act collectively (Volckak, 1998). These two definitions encompass all the relevant definitions of the social capital.

The present study is an applied research. In terms of data collection and analysis, it is an analytical-descriptive study. The population of this study consisted of all the first-grade students of high schools in 19th district of Tehran in the academic year of 2007-2008. 897 students were selected for the study. Stratified random sampling method was used forthe research sample. The researcher made questionnaire included 87 questions based on the five- Likert scale (ranging from very small to very high). Cronbach's alpha was used to determine the reliability of the instrument and the second-order confirmatory factor analysis technique was used to determine the validity of the tool.
To analyze the data, descriptive statistical techniques such as frequency distribution, central (facade, middle, and mean), and dispersion indices (standard deviation and variance) for demographic variables and social capital variables were used. To answer the questions, weight Measurement Techniques and Friedman Test were used.

Findings: According to the results of the data analysis, the condition of the three groups of students, male and female students in the social capital variable, dimensions, indicators, types, and levels are as follows.
According to the results of Friedman test in three groups, regarding social capital variables, dimensions, indices, types, and levels, it can be said that the rate of index obtained in three groups at the level of 0.01 is significant indicating a significant difference between the mean of the rankings of variables in each group. According to the ranking of the variables in the groups, the following points can be stated.
• The highest rank in the total group of students was related to the common goals variable with the mean of 3.81 and the lowest rank in the total group of students was related to the variable of knowledge and information exchange with the mean of 1.91.
• The highest rank in the knowledge of the boystudents was related to the quality of network variables with the mean of 3.72 and the lowest score in the boy student group was for the variable of knowledge and information exchange with the mean of 1.84.
• The highest rank in the female students group is related to the variable of the norms with the mean of 4.60and the lowest score in the student group is related to the variable of exchange of knowledge and information with the mean of 1.98.

Discussion and Conclusion: In this research, the variable of social capital and its dimensions, such as network quality, network structure, and network transactions, as well as social capital indicators such as norms, common goals, network size, network mobility, cohesion of communications, and the exchange of knowledge and information along with prioritization indicators of social capital were taken into consideration. While the total target score for the whole group of male and female students was high, there was a low level of knowledge and information exchange among them, as well as a low priority indicating a lack of fit between the instruments and goals in the society and the weakness of the collective culture, which is most common in developing countries and is considered as thereason for backwardness in various fields. The findings also noted the high level of the norm in girls and its significant difference with boys. It seems that the different society and the cultural diversity of the girls and boys in the Iranian society is the major cause of the girls' high rank in the observance of norms. Generally, in contrast to the male students, the typical model of anIranian female studentis the one who follows the traditional religious beliefs defined according to the norms of the society and who has limited communication in the society

Health is the most fundamental aspect on which human life relies. In addition to informing countries on providing mental, physical, and social health for all members of their societies, the World Health Organization (WHO) asserts that no aspect of health is superior to the other. Furthermore, the growth and success of any society depends on the health of its members. Identifying the determining factors related to the health of societies in line with policy-making and planning at micro and macro levels is considered as the major concerns of any country in terms of physical, mental, and social health (Hezarjaribi & Arfa’ei Einoddin, 2012). Given the various definitions expressed for health, the one offered by WHO is the most acceptable rendering health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (The World Health Organization, 2005). One of the factors related to citizens’ health is the extent of religiosity. Religion, is a reality that is considerably present in various aspects of human life. As one of the five main identities of any society, religion has found a special place in categories presented by sociologists. Several scientists believe that many health-related variables could be explained through religious beliefs. Religion is, in fact, one of the effective factors on behavior and cognition. Believing in a religion leads to the formation of meaning, hopefulness, feeling of control, healthier lifestyle, and being approved by others, all of which improve one’s health (Pourmohammad, Jahanbakhsh, & Mohammadi, 2017). Researchers in the area of physical and mental health suggest a connection between humans’ spiritual life and their physical and mental well-being (Mousavi & Akbar Zardkhaneh, 2011).

Theoretical Framework There are two different approaches to define health: 1. The disease-centered approach: This approach is limited to the presence and absence of diseases in various physical and mental categories. 2. The health-centered approach: According to this approach health is defined as having high degrees of well-being. One of the scholars in the field of health is Keyes (2006) whose works entail sociological and psychological tips. According to his theory, the possibility of assessing individuals’ quality of life and personal performance without considering social criteria is a question that has been missing from the history of studies on health, particularly mental health. He believes that well-being involves a social foundation and defines individuals’ social health as an assessment of their states and performances in the society. In this regard, proper performance in life is more than having mere physical and mental health, incorporating various social challenges. Another prominent expert who has presented approaches on the relation between health and religiosity is Harold Quing. He regards religion and praying as more than words and physiological responses. His studies clearly show that religious individuals lead healthier lives and experience greater overall happiness; they suffer less from diseases or depression and even if they do, they can be cured faster. Koenig (2007) presented ten mechanisms to explain the relation between religion and mental health, almost all of which confirm the positive impact of religiosity on individuals’ mental and physical health (Riyahi, Aliverdinia, & Baniasad, 2008).

In terms of purpose, the present inquiry is an applied study in which data collection was carried out using the survey method. It is also a longitudinal study conducted through multiple time periods. The population of the study included the citizens of Mashhad who were over thirty years old, out of which 300 were selected as the sample population using Cochran’s formula. The standard SF36 questionnaire and Glock and Stark’s religiosity questionnaire were used for data collection. Furthermore, multi-stage cluster sampling was used to indicate sample units.

Findings Among the 300 citizens investigated, 32% were women and 68% were men (M=41.39). The average number of children in the investigated families was 4.15. More than half of the participants (i.e., 51.7%), 35.3% had a part-time job, and13% were unemployed. Considering the types of occupations, 39.3% of the participants had government jobs, while 48.7% were self-employed; moreover, 12% did not specify their occupation. The majority of the participants, (i.e., 79% were married. while 1% were widowed or divorced and 19% were single. The extent of general health for the citizens of Mashhad who were over 30 years old was found to be above average, the highest extent of which belonged to physical (physiological) health. Furthermore, there was a linear relationship between the level of religiosity of the participants and their general health, as the higher the level of individuals’ religiosity, the higher their level of general health would be.

Discussion and Conclusion: The present study was conducted to examine the impact of religiosity on the health of citizens aged 30 years or over in Mashhad. The descriptive findings of the study show that the extent of religiosity in the sample population is at a high level (3.953 out of 5). As the Islamic culture is the dominant culture of the society and Mashhad is mainly regarded as a religious city, individuals’ beliefs are supposed to be under the influence of the Islamic culture. Furthermore, the citizens’ health were at a high level (77.176 out of 100).
The inferential findings of the study showed a significant correlation between the independent variable of religiosity and citizens’ (aged 30 years or above) health (r=0.434). Moreover, it was found that the correlation between religiosity and social mental health is greater than the correlation between religiosity and the physical health. The results of the multiple regression analysis demonstrate that the variables introduced to the model, explain almost 36.7% of changes in the citizens’ health. Among the variables introduced to the model, the independent variable of religiosity (in knowledge dimension) had the highest impact on citizens’ health with the standardized coefficient of 0.479