نشریه تاریخ پزشکی
پیاپی 31 (تابستان 1396)

We traced the actions of Ottoman rulers during the first empire period in the establishment of medical institutions in accordance with the development of the territory and the reason for their failure to succeed in this course.

This research, which is in the field of medical history studies, was performed using library resources, catalogs, documents and handwritten books. Ethical considerations were observed in the citations. Findings: We traced the course of the Ottoman government's efforts to establish medical institutions proportionate to the empire and the reason for their failure to succeed in this path. The formation of the Ottoman state and its extension from a tribal power to a state and then to an empire necessitated the establishment of various institutions appropriate to this expansion. To create these institutions, the Ottomans adopted former patterns of Islamic Caliphate, Seljuq, Byzantine and Ancient Iran. One of the institutions adopted from Islamic models was a medical institution. By attracting Iranian and Islamic physicians and using their scientific and practical experience, they began to establish medical centers and medical schools. For teaching, they translated and adopted medical textbooks, mainly from Arabic sources. Among the translated books was the book "Al-Tasrif Lehman Ajz-e Aslif" written by Abolqasem Zahravi of the 4th century AH in Andalusia, which was translated by Sharafuddin Sabounchi Oghlu. The article describes this process and the factors leading to the failure of Ottomans to achieve a fundamental transformation in the field of medicine in the first era of the empire.

Various factors could account for the failure of Ottomans in establishing medical institutions, such as the lack of necessary capacities such as lack of religious support, in spite of the Arabic language, which was the language of the Qur'an and hadiths, as well as the lack expansion of the Ottoman language in proportion with the expansion of its territory and its exclusiveness only to the Anatolian region. In addition, the beginning of the Renaissance era and the intellectual and cultural developments in the West were among the most important factors in the failure of the Ottomans in this process.

Hygiene is one of the most important issues in new social history. The level of health influenced by subjects like food, clothing and housing and per capita income and in other side, affects standards of living. So, realizing the health condition of a society, led us to understand standard of living.

This article focuses on rural people as a major part of society until 1970, which had the main role in national production. I will go to investigate that what was the health situation of rural society in Qajar and Pahlavi Iran, and which factors had effected this condition? Findings: written and oral sources and field research-show that rural society wasn't in an acceptable situation (at least in compare with today's criteria), a reality that can approve by high birth rate and mortality, especially among children.

The social system, village structure, poverty, ignorance and superstition were most effective factors that influenced the hygiene. By the time, the extension of modern medical science, especially after the spread of diseases such as cholera, led the state to develop healthcare during the last century. This article will help to progress rural studies in Iran.

In the past, a large number of manuscripts and books have been written by various authors as to the skills of physicians. In some cases, these writings are far from reality and turn a physician into a legend for later generations. Al-Harith Ibn Kalada is one of these physicians, and a large number of contradictory stories have been written in relation to his skills. It is even mentioned in a number of articles that Prophet Mohammad probably copied his medical science in some cases from the medical information of Kalada. This review article was based on historical and medical texts about Kalada. Due to the contradictory information about Kalada and his relationship with the Prophet, we presented information in relation to his age, his writings, and his turning into Islam to demystify his life. Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations were observed in the choice of title, data collection, citation, as well as all other stages of the study. Findings: According to our findings, it was found that Kalada departed for Jundishapur University of Iran and returned to Hejaz after a while. About his turning into Islam, we could not obtain precise results. However, there is strong evidence that anything the Prophet stated in relation to medicine was merely revelation and divine teachings. According to our findings, it was found that Kalada departed for Jundishapur University of Iran and returned to Hejaz after a while. Kalada was the first physician among Arabs of the Era of Ignorance that was called a physician because of his academic education. About his turning into Islam, we could not obtain precise results. However, there is strong evidence that anything the Prophet stated in relation to medicine was merely revelation and divine teachings.

Su-ul-Qinya is a term used in many reliable Iranian medicine references referring to a hepatic disease. It is the underlying cause of a disease named dropsy (also referred to as pre-dropsy). Since the term Su-ul-Qinya was not found in Grecian medicine books, we aimed to study the historical course of emergence of this term in Iranian traditional medicine textbooks.

A descriptive review study was conducted using 906 books and theses on traditional medicine. We also retrieved relevant articles to the term Su-ul-Qinya from reliable scientific databases such as PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar. Findings: Probably the first person reporting the pre dropsy disease was Heron ibne Ayon. He mentioned it as Fesad-Al-Mezaj. From the 4th century of AH, Raby ibn Ahmad Akhawayni introduced this disease as Suul- Hal. It seems that Abu-Ali-Sina was the first person who propounded it as Su-ul-Qinya in the beginning of the 5th century of AH.

At some point in time, this disease was both semantically and syntactically unknown. Based on research, despite the fact that Greek physicians such as Hippocrates were familiar with the term dropsy, no such term as pre-dropsy disease could be found in medical textbooks. There is no evidence regarding the existence of the term Su-Al-Qonia in Greek medical scripts. In the era of medical growth, Su-ul-Qinya was propounded as an independent disease with independent diagnosis and treatment processes. The first person who entered the term Su-ul-Qinya into medicinal textbooks was Abu-Ali-Sina.

Fertility style is the main factor in the population growth trend. The review of factors associated with the fertility style is a very complicated process since the interdependence of some factors grab the possibility of making a specific distinction between them. Regarding this, the present study aimed to investigate the most important factors in fertility style, including socio-economic factors, religious beliefs, government policies, and cultural factors.

This study was conducted on the articles on the most important factors in fertility style published within 1990-2016. The searching process was accomplished using several databases, including the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, Google Scholar, PubMed, Psyc INFO, Thomson Reuters, SID, Cochrane and Medical Library Findings: The search process resulted in the inclusion of 14 studies meeting the eligibility criteria. The findings of the reviewed studies revealed the positive and influential role of religious beliefs in the fertility style. The age at marriage and maternal age were the other effective factors in the fertility style. On the other hand, low economic status, high literacy and cultural activities had a negative relationship with childbearing.

As the findings indicated, the achievement of the most appropriate growth path and a dynamic and balanced society requires an equilibrium and coordination between population growth and cultural, social, and economic development.

The Qajar era is considered a turning point in the history of medical evolution of Iran. However, this evolution confronted challenges throughout the Qajar era, one of which was the economic situation of the society. In that era, inadequate livelihood led people to oppose any transformation that would disrupt their relative tranquility. Accordingly, the modern medical knowledge was also affected by these oppositions. With this mental background, the question arises is whether economic barriers can be considered as one of the moderators of the application of modern medicine achievements (chemical drugs) in the Qajar era. It was hypothesized that the inappropriate economic status of the society could be considered as one of the main obstacles in the use of modern drugs in Iran during the Qajar era.

This study was conducted by the investigation of the historical books of the Qajar era, travelogue of foreign nationals, and articles related to the subject under discussion using a descriptiveanalytical method. Findings: In line with the research question and hypothesis, factors, such as the price of drugs, treatment costs of physicians (Hakiman), and budget for the establishment of health care institutions, were studied. According to the obtained data, in addition to the political, cultural, religious, and technological factors, economic factors were also effective in this regard.

As the finding indicated, the inadequate economic situation of society, which appeared in various forms in the community, was identified as one of the barriers in the expansion of the use of modern medicine achievements (chemical drugs).

Food restriction is nowadays one of the well-known approaches in the treatment of various diseases. Accordingly, the investigation of this issue by many scientists is indicative of the importance of this subject. In the valuable sources of the Iranian traditional medicine, food restriction has been emphasized as one of the therapeutic priorities. In this respect, Ibn Sina (an Iranian famous physician) in one of his valuable books, namely Canon, mentioned food restriction as the first step in the treatment procedure.

This review study was conducted to investigate the role of food restriction in the treatment process in traditional and modern medicine. The search process was accomplished by searching the keyword of 'food restriction' in various databases and authentic traditional medicine books. Findings: According to the results, food restriction was identified as one of the most important and practical ways of disease treatment and control from the Iranian traditional medicine and modern medicine perspectives. Accordingly, in some cases, an illness can be cured only through food restriction and management.

As the findings indicated, food restriction should be given more attention as the first step in the treatment of diseases.

From the viewpoint of Persian medicine, many diseases may be caused by foods, drinks and digestive system malfunctions and esophagus has an important role in this regard as the passage for food passing. As we know there is no comparative studies on esophageal diseases in traditional and modern medicine, the aim of this article is to examine the possibility of adapting their definitions and their etiology in both traditional and modern medicine schools so with combination of these two, we could achieve some better ways to treat esophageal diseases.

This is library research and a study of definitions, symptoms, etiology and therapies of esophagus diseases in valid texts of Persian medicine from the third to the thirteenth century has focused on the coincidences between traditional and modern medcine in esophageal diseases as good as possible. Findings: It was found in this research that 7 diseases were stated for esophagus in traditional medical texts, which are the basis for their treatment is to remove the reasons of the diseases and in addition to oral therapy, the use of other therapeutic methods of traditional medicine such as lifestyle modification, topical use of drugs, handworks also recommend that some of these do not have a place in modern medicine.

Studying the texts of traditional and modern medicine about esophagus diseases shows that some of these diseases were stated in both traditional and modern medicine and there are some similarities in terms of etiology as well as definitions and better treatment may be obtained using both medical schools. Therefore, more studies are needed to express esophagus disease etiology in traditional and modern medicine and proving the effect of different traditional treatments.