پژوهشنامه نقد ادبی و بلاغت
سال هفتم شماره 2 (پیاپی 14، پاییز و زمستان 1397)

More than half of the quatrains attributed to Baba Afzal Kashani, a high rank quatrain-composer among Persian poets, begin with self-addressing, or addressing nonhumans, God, prophet, beloved, opponent, reader and etc. as well as addressing human beings from the promise of the Creator. The audience is sometimes paid attention in the middle of the poem. Besides, to get his purpose, the poet applies imperative and preventive sentences to inform his audience using enthusiasm, avoidance and reproach. Providing exact statistics, the present study is to show what is addressed by the poet, the times, the forms, the reasons for addressing and its benefits in Baba Afzal Kashani's poems, and to compare his quatrains with the works of Khaghani and Zahir, two of his contemporary masters and Abd al-Rahman Jami, of the great quatrain-composers to reveal that his art sometimes overtakes theirs in using most of addressing methods. Also, the profound influence of the poet's teaching role on the influence of this method in his poetry and the effect of this eminent stylistic feature on the prevalence of Afzal's quatrains will be pointed out.

The present study has been accomplished to answer the question of whether the equivoque of proportion is represented only at the level of "one distich" or "one sentence" (horizontal axis) as an assumption comes from the works of the classic writers, or it can also be detected on the vertical axis of the text? To answer this question, the course of the Persian rhetoric evolution has been studied, and then, the ones who have initially proposed the concepts such as equivoque, equivoque of proportion, equivoque of translation, equivoque of contradiction, equivoque of overtaking, etc. have been introduced. Their various definitions and evidences have been also examined and criticized alongside a comparison between the opinions of the classic scholars with the views of contemporaries, and finally, "the equivoque of proportion on vertical axis of text" has been studied, referring to Hafiz's Divan, Naftha al-Masudur and the works of others. Mentioning textual evidence in this section, the meanings of the phrasal terms have been pursued in the Persian dictionaries, attempting as much as possible not to cite from contemporary dictionaries. As it will be seen, such a use of equivoque is fully consistent with structural stylistics and worthy of consideration.

To discover hidden implications of myths, Claude Lévi-Strauss- the well-known theorist of structuralism - has divided myths in to their smallest forming units, mythemes and has tried to explore their hidden meanings determining the position of mythemes and their dual contrast in different narrations. Using the structural approach of Lévi-Strauss, the Jamshid's dual personality has been analyzed in present study. His different dimensions of personality are the result of three confrontations between good and evil, death and immortality, and the importance and insignificance of family ties. The deep-structure of Jamshid mythology is also based on the twins' birth pattern, in a way that the first child has a good face and the second one is ugly because of the risk he makes for his mother's life. Jamshid plays the good role as long as his twin is present in the myth, but when the role of his twin fades away Jamshid himself represents both roles of good and evil character of the twins.

Using a descriptive-analytical method and through a linguistic approach, the poetic language of Ahmad Reza Ahmadi has been criticized in terms of formalism in present study. The results show that applying various types of verbal and semantic defamiliarazations and deviations, as well as making various combinations and expressions, has given a special prominence to his particular language in such a way that it can be said that he has a different style and language. Since the beginning of the work, the poet has kept in his poems the uniformity of language and content, and has narrated the routine and common events of life, and, with the use of potential power of language, abandonment of lingual norms and defamiliarization of usual habits, and also through common utilization of words and sentences, has created new narrations and themes and developed a new form of language.

Metaphor is one of the major issues in cognitive linguistics. Metaphor, in this approach, is not just one of the tools of poetic imagination or a lingual feature, but it occurs in our everyday life and our thoughts and actions. It is essentially a way through which the conceptualization of a domain of experience is going to be expressed in other domain, according to Lakoff and Johnson (2003). The destination domain is usually more abstract and the source domain is more objective and tangible. The above mentioned scholars have divided conceptual metaphors into three ontological, structural, and directional groups. Through a descriptive-analytic method, the present study is to analyze the materialistic ontological metaphors in Ferdowsi's masterpiece, Shahnameh. The phenomenal or material metaphors are those that are formed on the basis of human experience of material and physical objects. In order to answer the question of how material ontological metaphors were used in Shahnameh and what concepts have become concrete through this metaphor, the authors have reviewed about 3800 distiches of the work. It has been found that Ferdowsi made many abstract concepts tangible by using material objects. These concepts are destination domains that have been conceptualized with the source domain of object. Ontological metaphors are the most frequent type of conceptual metaphors in Shahnameh.

The present research is about the most important symbol in the field of thought and language of Jalāl al-Dīn Muhammad Balkhī, which has been dramatically and questionably repeated in most of his works, especially Mathnavi, and deserves revising. Its reading and revising can provide new fields of research in the works of Mowlavi. The sun and the light have intertwined with religious, mystical, and mythical ideas and beliefs and manifested in a particular way in Mowlavi's thought system, what can be considered, in its turn, one of his poetic privileges. When the fundamental symbols of Mowlavi's thoughts are analyzed through a symbolic approach, the amazing depth of the particular thinking of this symbolic mystic would be better revealed; because a prism of symbols, tied to the sun, moves around this center and displays well its unitary idea. With the help of sun image, Mowlavi exhibits the hidden unity of this world's interior, and has resolved the internal and psychological conflicts using a creative and artistic psychoanalysis. The sun has not only been able to put the man mind on the borders of perfection and beauty, but also has improved his power, spirituality, hope and insight.

The nature of mental activity is one of the issues are being studied in cognitive science. From a cognitive point of view, understanding a conceptual domain based on another conceptual context is "metaphor". The use of body organs, as a source of cultural conceptualization of everyday concepts, is very considered in cognitive linguistics. The conceptualizations of "eye" in Hafiz's sonnets has been analyzed in the context of cognitive linguistics in present study. This research is to answer two questions: 1) what is the source concept in the "eye" conceptualization in Hafiz's sonnets? And, 2) which of the quadruple tools of expansion, complexity, composition, and question, that make the language of poetry different, are applied more in creation of "eye" metaphors? Findings show that "eye", in most metaphors, has been conceptualized as an abstract concept in destination domain with more objective concepts. In other words, "eye" benefits concepts such as human, vessel, and object as a source domain. The most conceptualization of the "eye' is also seen in the source domain of vessel. It can be said that "combination" is the most used mechanism in conceptualization of "eye" in the poems of Hafiz, regarding the application of various types of cognitive mechanisms.

The present study is to provide a consistent description for a kind of Persian meter known as dowri (cyclic) meter. Those researchers who study meter have mostly defined the cyclic meter on the basis of its application rather than its metrical structure, so they have not been able to describe it comprehensively. Since there is a significant relation between the cyclic meters and prosodic circles, the special circle of each cyclic meter should be initially analyzed through a descriptive approach in order to get an accurate definition of it. A cyclic meter is nothing but a prosodic circle that some of its syllables are omitted, or are replaced with a pause. It should be noted that the cyclic miters are grouped into double meters category , but they differ from double meters . this fundamental difference is related to the way these meters are made . Every cyclic meter is double meter , but not each double meter is a cyclic one.

Vahshi Bāfqi is one of the most prominent speakers of 16th century and one of the leading figures in the "School of Occurrence" who has composed poetry in various forms and has created several outstanding poems in all of these styles. He points to didactic and ethical issues in his Kholde Barin and uses in this regard the tools of rhetoric and in particular semantics effectively. He has succeeded to transfer and learn ethical concept to the audience using semantics and its appropriate tools such as imperative, subjective and question sentences, and in this way he could make the presence of the audience in his text more distinguished. These types of sentences and their secondary meanings have been examined in present study and the subtleties of three semantics topics: imperative, subjective and question sentences and their role in effective manifestation of the poet's didactic themes in an instructive text has been explored.

Creating new characters and spaces, Shahriar Mandanipour has written “Ultramarine Blue” as a fiction collection on the basis of the events happened in September 11, 2001. The form of the stories, the combination of the sequences and the narrative style tailored to the subject of the stories all express his work's structural profoundness. In each one of the stories, Mandanipour deals with a specific aspect of events happened in September 11th. In this story collection, the technique of creating various and diverse stories about a single incident is to illustrate the fact that there were numerous narratives and analysis of the incident and the way suggested to confront all over the world. The narrator's viewpoint and the basis of narratives about the 9/11 incident is depended on the points of view of the victims and the people who suffered the disaster of the tragedy. With this critical concept, there will be no difference between the performance of attack designers and those who provide the operational bases for terrorist acts, both of which cause destruction and collapse of the lives of the public. The subject of the stories and the way they are narrated inspires sympathy for humans, whether Eastern or Western, and shows that all human beings are incapable and vulnerable against such events.

Khatib Qazvini is one of the most prominent Muslim speakers who has summarized the third book of Miftah al-u'lum Sakaki to facilitate the communication with text and making it to be learnt better, and has created Talkhis al-Miftah in continuation of the Islamic classical tradition of speech, a work that contained his own views on rhetoric. He, then, wrote Idhah to describe and complete the content of Talkhis al-Miftah, but in spite of being late, sophisticated and more detailed, it was not able to achieve a suitable place against the Talkhis al-Miftah. Thus the status of Idhah was gradually neglected between scholars and rhetoric and speech researchers. Any proper work has been done on this noteworthy book in Persian language and there is no even a complete Persian translation of it. Through a short overview of the evolution of rhetoric and the historical structure of Muslim speakers and the most important books of this science, the present study has been accomplished focusing Khatib Qazvini's Idhah and introduces some examples of late scholars on Qazvini's opinions in the field of rhetoric and the influence of these opinions in the context of Khatib's proposed concept for rhetoric.

Due to the link with the Qur'anic language and Muslims' verbal beliefs, the concept of metonymy has been considered as a controversial and important challenge from the beginning of rhetorical studies in the Muslim world. Farra, Ibn Abi al-Khattab Qureshi, Abu Obeida Moammar bin Muthanna, Jahiz, Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani are the most prominent people who have taken the basic steps in formulating the definition of metonymy. It has, however, changed in to a rhetoric term near Sakkaki and khatib Qazvini and has been realized with the same definition till now. Nowadays, metonymy is repeated with the same traditional definition and the interests exist in ancient rhetorical texts, however the contemporary linguistic studies help greatly in making the classification and modern definition of topics in eloquence clear. Drawing the evolution has happened in the definition of metonymy and its interests, the present study is to analyze it on the basis of Jakobson's theory of "metaphorical and metonymic poles of language" and through the concept of association and the law of proximity, it attempts to prove that metonymy applications are actually figurative associations to the semantic interests of proximity; and it would be possible to take a new look on the discussion of metonymic interests and to facilitate its instruction using this approach.

What can make the delicacy and the linguistic and expressive beauty of literary works, including prose and poetry, to be revealed is the level of skill and familiarity with rhetorical science, through which and with the help of them, one can express a meaning in different ways in terms of literary and artistic creativity. However, this is due to the fact that the differences are based on imagination. The critical comparison of these works can be very effective and constructive in their better and more accurate understanding. Therefore, the present research is to analyze and criticize "expression" in ancient and contemporary Persian rhetoric books through a critical and scientific approach and to show, using enough evidences and avoiding any love or hatred, its shortcomings and deficiencies. Almost all existing sources of "expression" from the old to the contemporary period have been investigated in present study, and the existing similarities, differences and contradictions, including imperfections, were analyzed through a three level critical exploration. The findings show that the authors of most rhetorical books have turned to imitation and repetition in their definitions, proposing their viewpoints and examples and have been suffering weaknesses and shortcomings such as Arabism, extreme fluent-writing, and using abbreviations, details and difficult examples.

The Morphology of the story by Paul Vehvilainen is one of the morphology patterns for analyzing hero-centered stories which is somehow a summarization of Propp’s method. Accordingly, each hero-centered story consists of five stages (the feeling of shortage and deficiency by the hero, his motive for compensation, facing the helper, confronting the test, and reward) by which narrative structure and formation can reveal the author's purpose and point of view. As a didactic work, Sa'di's Gulistan contains, in its first volume, eight anecdotes coincided with the Paul Vehvilainen’s suggested model. All heroes are people related to the word or meaning of the court and faced with unwanted psychological, physical and situational challenges. Some "human/situation" combinations of helpers, the class of therapists in particular, accompany them. Afterwards, the humanistic high quality features of the person such as (tact, patience, insight, loyalty, friendship, freedom, and magnanimity) are measured in an examination. All the heroes come out proudly, and the desire brought the movement about would be achieved with the same quality or above. Therefore, processing heroic narratives in a realistic space, Saadi introduces everyone as the hero of his own life narrative and utilizes the heroic genre to get his purposes in didactic literature.