نشریه اطلاعات جغرافیایی (سپهر)
پیاپی 107 (پاییز 1397)

Given the population growth and increasing urbanization, the occurrence of natural disasters like earthquake can cause heavy losses and damages and interrupt the development of cities and countries. Among these disasters, the earthquakeisof great importance due to its unpredictability and high frequency in relation to other events, as well as its location on the earthquake belt. According to the last year's estimate, Iran has been one of the 6 countries with high mortality rates in earthquakes. Therefore, finding a way to minimize the losses can be critical. Crisis managers need quick information from the affected area after the earthquake to minimize the fatalities and financiallosses. The destruction map is one of the information that helps crisis managers. These maps show the destructed buildings or roads with their degree of destruction. With these maps, the destructed buildings and roads can be found quickly. Many methods are used to prepare the destruction maps, such as aerial/satellite images, LiDAR data, etc. These information can be used to determine the destructed buildings automatically or by visual interpretation. Visual interpretation for determining the degree of destruction requires operator. Although this method has high accuracy, it is less considered because it is time consuming and needs specialists to interpret the data. Therefore, researchers have focused on automated processing techniques for the production of the destruction maps. Various automatic change detection techniques are used to evaluate the destruction resulting from earthquakeby comparing satellite images in two pre and post-earthquake periods based on satellite and aerial images. LiDARdata is one of the most important sources of information to determine destructed buildings with high accuracy and speed. LiDAR data provides the possibility of 3-D demonstration of the destructed region. This information is a great help in preparing the destruction map automatically. The recent expansion of the LIDAR technology is due to the high spatial power of these data. As a result, many researchers have focused on developing an automatic destruction map using Lidardata.Although considering the textural information from the Lidar data, like homogeneity in the destructed region can be effective in distinguishing between the destroyedand undestroyed buildings.
In this paper, a new algorithm is proposed to prepare the destruction map after the earthquake by integratingthe post-event high resolution satellite images and post-event LiDAR data. In the proposed method, different textural descriptors of the LiDAR image and data are extractedafter the necessary preprocessing on the satellite image andLiDAR data after the earthquake. In the next step, using the layer of buildings extracted from the map,the areas of the buildings are extracted from the satellite image and LiDAR data, as well as the satellite image descriptors and LiDARdata.Then, the textural descriptorsextracted from the satellite image and LiDAR data are combinedtogether. After that, the points inside this area are categorized into two classes of "debris" and "intact" by the method of support vector machine. Finally, based on the area of the debris class of each building, destroyed and undestroyed buildings were identified by taking a threshold limit into consideration. This algorithm is executed on each building from the destruction part to produce the final destruction map In order to evaluate the proposed method,the data set was selected from the city of Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti, after the 2010 earthquake. According to the USGS reports, 97,294 buildings were damaged and 188,383 were destroyed in Port-au-Prince and most of the southern parts of Haiti. Furthermore, reports show that 222,570 people were killed, 300,000 were injured, and 1.3 million people were displaced. The sample data set include post-event WorldView II satellite images as well as post-event LiDAR data. The WorldView II satellite took images on January, 16 2010, and the LiDAR date was also obtained from this topography website. Obtaining LiDAR data is from January, 21 2010 to January, 27 2010. The vector map of the selected test area was generated in ArcGIS environment. By evaluating the proposed method and using the existing data, the overall accuracy of 97% and the Kappa coefficient of 92% were obtained which proved the reliability of this technique. In this paper, a new method for the generation of damage map based on the integration of high resolution satellite images and LiDAR data was proposed. The results show the ability of this method in generating destruction maps based on the satellite images with high resolution and LiDAR data. In comparing similar studies, the results are satisfactory. The selection of the appropriate descriptors, correct training data, the elimination of non-building areas from the sample data, the integration of satellite images and LiDARdate can be known as the reason behind obtaining these results.

Over the past two centuries, in many countries in the world, population density has dramatically grown in urban areas, resulting in cities to witness rising construction of multi-story apartment buildings and utilizing above and below ground spaces. Expansion of tower construction and development of infrastructure networks are among the obvious examples of using above and below ground spaces of cities. Today, in order to manage these complex structures, the urban managers use three-dimensional urban models to plan for the future of the city. The land information is considered as the basis for the development of each country; among other things, cadaster as a parcel-based land information system can accurately determine the status and location of the real estates. Unlike the traditional cadastral system, the 3D cadaster is capable of modeling such features as buildings considering the third dimension i.e. height, thereby establishing the access rights for owners, whether individuals or organizations. Currently, the real estate management model is one of the best and most efficient ones for the implementation of 3D cadaster, which is originally developed based on the unified modeling language (UML). Accordingly, the aim of the present research is to generate a 3D urban cadastral model using the aerial imagery to improve the real estate management in the metropolitan area of Tehran by taking an executive approach. This is an applied research, therefore, in order to ensure that the results are close to the reality and to consider the current conditions of Tehran in terms of the information required, the instructions for the provision of spatial information of the municipality of Tehran are used in the scale of 1:1000 by the photogrammetry method and the coordinated instructions of the national mapping organization are used for the production of a 3D cadastral model. The study was conducted in the northwest of Tehran in zone 5, district 5 of Tehran municipality. Being located in the foothills with the favorable climate, convenient access and distinctive urban fabric has caused the region to have the highest growth in the population and physical body for the last two decades. Besides, the passage of the metro line 2 (the busiest metro line of Tehran) and the line 10 of BRT buses (including long bus lines) in zone 5 in the area of the second square of Sadeghieh and the heavy population density in this region are among the most important criteria for choosing this area for the implementation of research objectives. The data used in this research are divided into two categories: spatial (geometric or situational) and descriptive data. Spatial data include aerial photogrammetric images (image pair) with 1:3000 scale using WILD-17126 cameras with the focal length of 303.40 mm and 0.5m contour interval under the UTM system, WGS84 reference ellipsoid and Ultracam XP digital camera images with the scale of 1:10,000. Considering that the 1:1000 map of Tehran was prepared during 2010-2014 by the municipality of Tehran and used as a detailed map in Tehran city, the planimetric criteria and the matching of descriptive information and the criteria of height accuracy, field activity and production of accurate height data sets are done by land surveying of desired models. In order to evaluate the geometric accuracy of the model, the root mean square error (RMSE) and correlation coefficient (CC) were used. The results of the implementation on a total of three studied buildings show that the planimetric accuracy of the X and Y components were 1.451 m and 1.431 m for RMSE and 93.7% and 97.1% for CC, respectively. The accuracy of the height component with 2.605 m for RMSE and 66.5% for CC is consistent with the reference data. In addition, for analyzing the proposed research method, the model was compared with the object-oriented analysis, artificial neural network, manual digitization, and Khoshboresh&Sadeghian (2016) method, which was rated as appropriate, so that in only one case of planimetric accuracy and one case of height accuracy, the manual digitization method has better results than the proposed method. Hence, it can be concluded that, although a 3D cadastral system has not been widely implemented in any country of the world, however, most countries seek to achieve such system by providing appropriate solutions, because as mentioned above, having such cadastral system, many problems related to land management and related crises can be solved. In this paper, the first prototype of 3D cadastral implementation in zone 5, district 5 of Tehran was analyzed using the large-scale digital aerial images. The results of this modeling show that the generated model matches the accuracy criteriaproperly.

Energy is one of the most important factors in the development of human societies and is one of the essential factors in economic, social development and quality of life.Population explosion and growing energy demand, increasing living standards, the risk of global warming due to the greenhouse phenomenon, falling of acid rains, environmental problems and threats to human health, and finally lack of fossil energy sources are among the issues that attract the attention of the world's nations to the use of renewable energies,so that, in their planning, they take the provision of a percentage of the energy needed by their country through wind turbines, solar energy, geothermal energy and other renewable energyinto considerations. Due to the limited resources of fossil fuels and savings for future generations, there should be a need to replace and use renewable energies such as solar energy. More than 85% of Iran's territory is covered by arid and semi-arid regions, where the energy share of solar radiation is high.Solar energy, as one of the sources of clean energy and free from environmental degradation, has long been used in many ways. Due to the limitation of fossil sources and their pollution, as well as the increasing demand for energy, it is necessary to take measures to optimize the use of the solar energy source in Iran.
Given that most of the work done in the field of estimating radiation energy has been made using weather or climatic data such as temperature, cloudiness, radiation, etc., and remote sensing data and satellite imagery have not been used generally, therefore, the purpose of this research is to investigate the radiation potential in a part of the central regions of Iran using remote sensing data and albedo, brightness, vegetation, moisture and land surface temperature indices.

Material and Methods: The study area is situated in central region of Iran in the geographical range 33º, 41ʹ,50ʺ-35º, 28ʹ, 30ʺ northern latitudes and 50º, 41ʹ, 40ʺ-52º, 30ʹ, 27ʺ eastern longitudes. The present research is an applied one, and its methodology is a combination of remote sensing and Geostatistical analysis. The data used in this research was obtained from the May 17, 2015 images of Landsat 8 satellite, with the course 164 and the row 36. In order to study the radiation potential, indices such as albedo, brightness, NDVI, greenness, moisture, and ground surface temperature were used. To calculate each of the aforementioned indices, the equations and functions related to each index on the Landsat 8 image were used in ENVI 5.3 and GIS 10.3 software. In order to calculate the Earth's surface temperature index (LST), the thermal bands 10 and 11 of Landsat 8 must first be converted into the radiance, and then to the brightness temperature, and finally to the temperature of the satellite's brightness. Then, the map relating to each standardization index, and the potentiometric map were prepared by takingthe mean of all indicators. Finally, the potentiometric map was also classified into five classesaccording to the estimated amount of solar radiation, including very inappropriate, inappropriate, moderate, appropriate, and very appropriate. The results obtained from Albedo, brightness, NDVI, greenness, moisture and land surface temperature indicators are shown from low to high. For Albedo index, the least amount (6668.87) was observed in the northwest of Qom, south ofGarmsar, southwest of Abu Zaidabad, Niasar, Golestan, northwest of Kashan, and the highest amount (61352.7) was observed in the northern parts of Garmsar, south and southeast of Qom, and West of Aran-o-Bidgol. For the brightness index, the lowest value (15441.9) was observed in the northwest of Qom, south ofGarmsar, southwest of Abu Zaidabad, Niasar, Galak, northwest of Kashan, West of Pishva, Gharchak, and the highest amount (129881)was observed in northern parts of Garmsar, Center and South and South West of Qom and West of Aran-o-Bidgol. For NDVI index, the lowest vegetation cover (-0.393175) was seen in the central and northwestern parts of Qom, south of Garmsar, Abu-zaidabad, north ofAran-Bidgol, northeast of Kashan, and the highest value (0.639655) was observed in the northeast of Garmsar, Qarchak, Pishva, Northwest of Javad-abad, south of the Kahak, west of Niasar, southeast of Kashan. For the greenness index, the lowest value (-43887.6) was observed in the northern parts of Garmsar, in the north of Hassanabad, south and southwest of Qom, south of Javad Abad, southwest andcenterofKashan, west and southwest of Aran-o-Bidgol, and the highest value (-3385.181) was observed in the southern parts of Garmsar, Niasar, Kahak, Northwest of Kashan, Center and Southeast of Abu-zaidabad. For the humidity index, the lowest and highest values (-52599.1 and 11.56 respectively) were seen in the northwest of Qom, south of Garmsar, southwest of Abu-zaidabad, Niasar, and northwest of Kashan. For the LST index, the lowest value (19.585) was observed in Qarchak, Javadabad, southern Garmsar, southwest of Abu Zaidabad, Niasar, Kahak, north and northwest of Kashan and the highest value (577.557) was observed in Garmsar, central Qom, West of Aran-o-Bidgol, eastern and northeastern parts of Abu-zaidabad.
The results of the land suitability analysis showed that the solar radiation potential ranged from 0.13882 to 0.71867. These values show the regions with less radiation as it gets closer to 0.13882, and more radiation as it gets closer 0.741867. The regions were classified into 5 categories includingvery appropriate, appropriate, moderate, inappropriate, very inappropriate, on the proportionality analysis map according to the solar radiation potential. Surface temperature and radiation are two important factors for the study of solar radiation. Based on these two factors, the best regions with the highest radiation potential and the highest albedo and the highest surface temperature were observed in Aran-Bidgol and Abouzid-Abad regions. The highest value (61352.72) of albedo was observed in the eastern part of Aran-o-Bidgol. However, the highest brightness value (129881) was found in this region. Based on Spatial Approach Analysis Map of solar radiation, the west of Aran-o-Bidgol region has the highest amount of radiation. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the places whereverthe Albedo and the brightness indices are higher, NDVI and greenness will decrease.
As a result, the albedo index has a direct correlation with the brightness index and an inverse correlation with NDVI index. Therefore, in the central regions of Iran, it is possible to determine the appropriate regions in terms of radiation potential through quantitative and qualitative calculation of suitable indicators such as albedo, temperature and brightness through remote sensing data and the relationships between each of these indices. Finally, it determines the best areas for acquiring solar energy and the construction of solar power plants. It is suggested that the remote sensing indices be combined with radiation models in order to obtain more accurate information in a shorter time and at a lower cost.

One of the new products, destinations and types of tourism that can be well utilized for the socio-economic reconstruction of the border areas, is war tourism. Almost after World War II, the war tourism idea which had no objectives except reviving the war zones and improving the economic conditions in these areas attractedthe attentions. War tourism is a type of black tourism, which is considered to be the most visited type of black tourism. Despite the public fear of death, the interest of tourists to visit the places which have experienced natural and human disasters is on the rise. The main issue addressed in this research is that, up until now, tourism activities related to the war have failed to gain a considerable place in economic and social sustainabilityin the city of Marivan considering its potentials in this city. The main objective of the present research is to identify and analyze the status of tourism in the region with a systematic approach, because tourism as a system composed of various elements can only play its role in the realization of developing war-torn areas, once all elements of the system in terms of quantity and quality are placed together in a coordinated set in such a way that includesall the players of the extensive scene of tourismso that the obstacles and problems of war tourism development in the city are detected in the first place and then, the practical solutions for the development of this type of tourism to create the bases for economic and social reconstruction of the war-torn region of Marivan are suggested.

Methods and Materials: The present applied research is descriptive-analytical in terms of method.Documentary resources were used to collect information in the theoretical part;and in the field part, a survey method based on interviews and questionnaires was used. The statistical population of this exploratory research includes two groups, officials, specialists, local experts in the field of development and tourism of the city, as well as those people who have travelled to the areasand war memorials of Marivan city in the form of Rahian-e-Nour camp.

Discussion and Findings: Analysis of interviews with tourists, informed people and experts in the field of tourism and development authorities of the cityidentified 43 indicators in 9 components (categories) and in two main dimensions of supply and demand. Meanwhile, 3 components of motivation and low willingness to visit the region, the lack of familiarity with the area and its attractions, and theexpensesof travelling to the region are related to the demand dimension, and 6 components of the lack of facilities, welfare and accommodation services,inappropriate quality of information, education and advertising, poor transportation structures, inappropriate quality of tourist attractions, the lack of attention, supervision and desirable performance of public institutions, and poor local participation are related to supply dimension of the region’s tourism. In the next step, the results of the factor analysis testwere used to confirm the extractedresults from the research findings, summarizationand determination of the factors (obstacles and problems) affecting the development of war tourism in the region. The results showed that the formed factors are capable of explaining 66 percent of the changes and shaping the present situation. Five main factors were formed. The highest factor load was related to the shortage of service, accommodation and welfare facilities, and the expenses of the trip; and the lowest was related to the motivation factor and low tendency to visit the region as well as the weakness of transportation structures. The results of the course analysis test showed that the undesirable conditions of the supply dimension had the greatest impact on the development of war tourism in the region. This dimension also affects the status of the demand dimension indirectly. The type of relationship and effectiveness were also calculated positive and direct so that it can be said that the more desirable the status of the components of the tourism supply dimensions of the region,the more will improve the status of demand dimension and its indicators which means that, by improvement of the conditions of supply dimension, more demands will be created for visiting the region and the war tourism will revive in the region. Given the fact that the quality of demand is subject to the conditions of supply dimension, undoubtedly the undesirable conditions of war tourism of the Marivan city, have a significant role in the formation of the weakness in this demand dimension. Therefore, it is necessary to organize and improve the conditions of the war tourism supply dimension of the city at first, in order to increase the resultant of the issue and continue the demand for visiting the attractions of war. In the meantime,the role of responsible governmentalagencieswhich requires a great deal of coordination and efficiency with regard to the multidimensionality of tourismwill be very significant.

Over the past 3 decades,major wars have taken place in our country and the areas around it, including the 8-yearimposed war by Iraq against Iran, the First and Second wars of the Persian Gulf (1991, 2003), the war of Afghanistan (2003), the 33-day war of Lebanon with the Zionist regime (2006), the 22-day, 8-day and 40-day wars of the Zionist regime against the people of Gaza, the war of the ISIS terrorist group against Syria over the past 7 years and against Iraq over the past 3 years, and the war in Yemenover the past 3 years. The war of Yemen and the fight against ISIS are still going on, and it has become more difficult to resolve these conflicts due to the formation of a controversial coalition led by the United States of America. Due to its prominent position in its geopolitical and anti-arrogance policy, the Islamic Republic of Iran has always been subjected to threats by the United States of America, the Zionist and othertotalitarian regimes in recent years.The expedients and guidelines of the Supreme leader of revolution are based on strengthening all infrastructure of the country against theenemy’s threats. In this regard, passive defense is considered as a complementary part for active or armed defense,which includes unarmed measures to increase deterrence and decrease vulnerability, sustaining vital activities, promoting national sustainability and favorable effectiveness of crisis management against threats and armed actions by the enemy.CivilDefense planning (Spatial organization) is a process which leads to the reduction of vulnerability and the increase of defensive reversibility, sustainability and tolerability against enemy’s attacks through reorganizing and rearranging spatial elements of a city.This research examines the passive defense indices in land use, urban texture and structure by taking the passive defense principles and requirements into consideration and then, zones the metropolis of Tehran from the civil defense planning perspective in an analytical manner,specifies its vulnerable and secure areas and providessolutions to increase its defensive sustainability. In this Regard, this research tries to zone different geographical regions of Tehran metropolis in the form of homogeneous classes based on their vulnerability conditions from the passive defense. For this purpose, 8 criteria were extracted after studying the literature and the history of the subject in the field ofnatural and man-made crisis management. Then, 48 indices or sub-criteria were determined, and classified under 8 predefined criteria in order to make these criteria measurable, based on accessible data. Afterward, using experts’ opinions, the criteria and sub-criteria were weighed by ANP method through paired comparisons in the form of questionnaire and then adjustedand modified in the Super Decision software (in order to maintain inconsistency rate of the comparisons within the acceptable limits). In addition to that, each indicator was categorized into 5 classes of desirability in order to achieve a result withgreater accuracy of comprehensiveness and more flexibility. Then, the maps related to each index were producedby inserting the indices into ArcGIS 10.5 and applying them to the city domain. By integrating and combining the sub-criteria maps related to each criterion, the zoning map based on that specific criterion, and finally, by combining the maps of these 8 criteria, the ultimate zoning map of civil defense spatial organizing was generated qualitatively (in 5 desirability classes). Since this research seeks to discover causal relationships between indices and their effects on the city,based on the basic sources of research method, it is an exploratory research which uses an analytical-descriptive method with an applied goal to study and interpret the data. This research uses both qualitative and quantitative procedures that means using quantitative methods along with qualitative approach in data analysisto facilitate classifications, calculations, and deductions. The study area involves all 22 regions of Tehran municipality. Regarding the collection of data and information, this research is a documentary study that uses Persian and English books and articles, related maps, internet portals and other documents. In addition, questionnaires and interviews with experts have been used. Finally, the integration and classificationof the exploratory and documentary findings and research analyses are carried out using inferential statistics, then,research suggestions are presented. M.S. Excel, ArcGIS 10.5 and Super Decision were the software used to prepare tables, maps and to analyze data. Making use ofthe experts’ opinions to weighthe indices, these indices were inserted into M.S. Excel the elimination of the scale differences and normalization as well. Then, they were categorized into 5 distinct classes of desirability. In order to obtainthe final weight and priority of indices considering ANP method, theirpairwise comparisons were inserted into Super Decision software. Finally, the results in ArcGIS 10.5 environmentwere assigned to different areas of Tehran metropolis, and the final zoning map of the defensive vulnerabilitywas generated as a Likert spectrum based on 8 criteria and their 48 sub-criteria on 5 levels, through the combination and integration of the weighted indices layers.

Results & Discussion, Conclusion: According to the surveys, only 10% of the city of Tehran is in perfect, 27% is in moderate and appropriate,and about 63% is in completely inappropriate conditions.
These numbers represent the critical state of passive defense in this metropolis, a densely populated city which is the capital city of a sensitive country in the geopolitics of the region and still has a centralizedmanagement method and has a serious and urgent need for attention and reorganization in this regard. Therefore, suggestions and solutions are proposed to increase the defensive tolerability and reducethe damages and losses following the occurrence of a possible attack. Some of the results of the research are as follows:- Providing the context to identify the vulnerable zones and to invest in order to increase their level of defensive tolerability.
- Making use of secure zones in order to locate temporary habitation sites at the time of a possible attack and to copy the patterns of their defensive space organization in future developments.
- Thinking ofimmediate measures to promote the level of defensive tolerability in inappropriate zones by building shelters, developing public safe havens, and developing permanent relief and rescue centers or temporary relief and rescue sites.
- Locating important, sensitive and vital useswith regard to the performed zoning and determining the security effects resulting from them on the surrounding areas.

Management of watersheds requires understanding of watershed conditions both in gauged and ungaugedbasins. The classification of watersheds by similarcharacteristics for the implementation of coordinated watershed operations and flood control as well as giving priority to sub-basinsis of great importance. The need for a classification framework in hydrology is not an entirely new subject. In fact, this subject has long been discussed and several studies have also attempted to advance this idea. So far, no acceptedcomprehensive protocol has been presented for the classification of watersheds,and questions can be raised regarding why this has not happened. More efforts must be made in order to develop such a classification.Previous studies have used hard clustering methods more, for the classification of watersheds but, the present study used fuzzy approach as asoft method. In general, the purpose of this research is to focus on the characteristics of the watersheds including morphological characteristics, soil and land use for the identification of similar watersheds. These parameters can facilitate the watershed classification scheme and our understanding ofthe watershed conditions. The dataset for this study includes is base maps (sub-watersheds boundary, streams and rivers, digital elevation model (DEM), soil and landuse which have been collected from Iran Water Resources Management Company. To classify the Karkheh watershed, 35 spatio-physical indices including topographic, morphological, landuse characteristics and soil parameters were considered. These indices have been calculated for each watershed. The dimension reduction of the variables was an important part, because 35 indices were quite large for the classification of 38 watersheds. Therefore, factor analysis for each group of indices wasusedseparately to reduce the number of variables.
After reducing the variables and selecting the final indices, the fuzzy clustering approach was conducted to classify the watersheds into homogenous groups. The number of optimal clusterswas determined through trial and error and the functions of partition coefficient and partition entropy evaluation. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test statistics for each group of the morphological, landuse and soil indices were 0.71, 0.69 and 0.76 respectively, indicating that the data was suitable for factor analysis. Factor analysis was conducted using Principle Component Analysis (PCA) method and the results revealed that among 35 spatio-physical indices, 9 indices (4 morphological indices, 3 land use indices and 2 soil parameters) had a higher load factor than other indices. Therefore, indices of the watershed surface, basin elongation, average length of drainage network and total topographic indexamong the morphological indices;percentage indices of rangelands, agricultural lands and wastelandsamong the land use indices; and indices of water holding capacity in the soil layer and saturated hydraulic conductivity among the soil parameters were selected as the ultimate criteria for grouping the watersheds.
Theselectedfactors were normalized between zero and one before the classification. Then, sub-watersheds were classified using fuzzy C-mean (FCM) approach. The trial and error method was used to find thenumber of optimum clusters. The maximum amount of evaluation function of partition coefficient equal to 0.76 and the minimum amount of partition entropy function equal to 0.49 occurred in three clusterstherefore,the number of optimum clusters equal to 3 clusters was determined through trial and error.The results of classification indicated that the triple groups included the sub-watersheds of the northeastern regions and parts of central regions of the Karkheh watershed (group 1), the northwestern- southeasternalong with the southern regions of Karkheh watershed (group 2) and the central regions and parts of southwestern regions of Karkheh watershed (group 3). Watershed classification with similar characteristics can be used as a method for watershed management, flood control and giving the priority to critical sub-basins. However, watershed classification is only completedwhenit is understood why some catchments belong to certain groups of hydrological behavior, so as to be possible to classify gauged and ungaugedwatersheds through it.
Finally, it is important to remember that classification of watersheds is not the “be-all and end-all” of research on watersheds, but rather only a means towards achieving broader aims of planning and management of our ecosystems, environment, water resources, and other relevant earth systems and resources. However, watershed classification certainly allows us to study catchments more effectively and efficiently and develop more appropriate strategies in terms of simplification in models/model development, generalization in our modeling approach, and improvement in communication both within the hydrologic community and across disciplines, as much as possible.

Land Surface Temperature (LST) and Emissivity are two significant physical features of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. The calculation of land surface temperaturehas a great significance in environmental studies, meteorology, evapotranspiration study, interactions between land surface and the atmosphere, detection of earthquake- related thermal anomalies, monitoring the drought, fire and energy balance models on the surface of the earth on a regional and global scale.The use of remote sensing technology and types of satellite images as one of the most important sources of data collection to study and monitor the land and environmental resources has attracted the attention of many experts and specialists of various sciences including environment, meteorology, hydrology, etc. in recent years.In recent years, hyperspectralthermal images have become a powerful tool for estimation of the land surface temperature due to the large number of thermal bands. The main purpose of this research is to obtain land surface temperature and emissivity using two distinct methods of TES (Temperature/Emissivity Separation Algorithm) and ARTEMISS (Automatic Retrieval of Temperature and emissivity using Spectral Smoothness) from the HyTES thermal hyperspectral images. The HyTES (Hyperspectral Thermal Emission Spectrometer) is an airborne thermal hyperspectral sensor with 256 spectral channels within the range of 7.5 and 12 micrometers in the range of thermal infrared of the electromagnetic spectrum designed by NASA.
The scope of this study was to retrieve land surface temperature, emissivity and atmospheric parameters from the HyTES sensor in two different methods ARTEMISS and TES. We used the ISAC method that estimates the transmission and upwelling radiance of the atmosphere. In ISAC method, it is necessary to fit a straightforward line to optimize upper boundary of data. We used the smoothness of the spectral emissivity in the ARTEMISS algorithm in order to retrieve temperature and emissivity. Atmospheric parameters that were obtained from ISAC were used in ARTEMISS and TES. In the next step, the TES algorithm was applied to derive surface emissivity and LST. This method is designed to reduce systematic errors in LST and LSE and also to limit errors in the amplitude and shape of emissivity spectra. This algorithm first estimates the normalized emissivity and then, calculates emissivity band ratios. Next, anempirical relationship predicts the minimum emissivity from the spectral contrast (MMD) of the normalized values, permits recovery of the emissivity spectrum with improved accuracy by using an empirical relationship between emissivity contrast and minimum emissivity, the nondeterministic problem of TES was solved. The basic problemof TES is, as indicated by Realmuto 1990 that we obtain spectral measurements of radiance and need to find unknowns ( emissivities and one temperature). This is a nondeterministic problem, so at least one additional constraint must be considered. Several methods have been developed to resolve these problems such as Normalized Emissivity Method (NEM), RATIO and Minimum-Maximum emissivity Difference (MMD). In the NEM module of TES, we guessed preliminary values of temperature and LSE assuming a value for the maximum local emissivity (for blackbodies). Then, in RATIO module, we estimated emissivity normalized spectrum (). In order to scale the spectrum to actual emissivity values, we used the MMD module of TES. After applying NEM, RATION and MMD module, TES estimates and reports pixel-by-pixel precisions for LST and LSE. Finally, we compared the results of LST and LSEs derived from these algorithms with products of HyTES. The results shown in this study prove the feasibility of retrieving accurate estimates of atmospheric parameters, surface temperature and emissivity with HyTESdata.It should be noted that the noise and water vapor absorption bands of HyTEShyperspectral image were removed, therefore, 202 optimal bands were selected. Then, TES algorithm consists of modules NEM, MMD and RATIO was applied. ARTEMISS method is based on (1) in-scene atmospheric transmission estimation, (2) matching of the transmission to a database and (3) retrieving a spectrally smooth emissivity by an iterative method used on hyperspectral data. The ARTEMISS algorithm was applied. The final outputs of these two algorithms include thermal and emissivity images. In order to evaluate these two methods and quality assessment, we used the satellite products that have been prepared by NASA. The results of the quality assessment show that temperature RMSE for TES and ARTEMISS methods are 0.6 and 1.2 kelvin respectively, and also emissivity RMSE for band 171 are 0.01 and 0.02 respectively. Therefore, TES algorithm is a more accurate method than ARTEMISS which was implemented for the first time on this type of data.The obtained results show that the thermal hyperspectral data are suitable for accurate retrieval of emissivity and land surface temperature in any kind of land cover.

Life in the modern cities takes shape through interaction with various environmental, socio-economic, infrastructural, health, security, political and cultural conditions. The result of this interaction shapes the quality of urban life (QOUL). Quality of lifeis a complex concept involving social, economic, environmental, physical, psychological and political aspects (El Din et al, 2013). In general, Quality of life (QOL) has been evaluatedbytwo objective and subjective points of view. Researches in this field, have mainly been conducted in the form of social studies and in the macro geographical scales of countries or cities,and less attention has been paid to the spatial differences of the life quality in the complex urban environments. In these studies, the principal components analysis (PCA) method has been the most common method used for combining and overlaying of the life quality indicators (Lo, 1998; Jun, 2006; Li and Weng, 2007; Motakan et al, 2010; HatamiNejad et al, 2014; Messer et al, 2014). But,Oneof the disadvantages of PCA is the possibility of deleting some of the useful information.Using Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) and Fuzzy Logic methods can also be useful in spatial modeling of life quality. Moreover, QOL as one of the features of geographical environment is a dynamic concept. This means that this feature changesover time and location. The spatiotemporal modeling of this concept can help monitoringthe quality of urban life and planning for its improvement.

Data and Methods: This study offers a framework and process for spatiotemporal modeling of QOUL. For spatial modeling of QOUL, effective indiceswere taken into consideration at first. In this study,the indicators related to the urban quality of life were extracted in 3 three environmental, infrastructural/physical, and socio-economic dimensions.The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method was used for weighing the parameters(Uyan, 2013). Then, the indicators were combined with each other using the GammaFuzzyModel(Vafai, 2013) and Vikor-Fuzzy overlay technique(Huang et al, 2009). Furthermore, QOUL was modeled temporally due to the variability of environmental indicators and some of infrastructural / physical indicators during the seasons of the year. For this purpose,the cyclic model (developed based on the snapshot approach (Worboys and Duckham, 2004)) was used. In order to assess the developed framework, the quality of lifewasmodeled at urban blocks level in regions 3,6,11 of the city of Tehran. The obtained results showed that applying multi-criteria decision-making and Fuzzy logicmodels in modeling of life quality is capable of showing the spatial difference oflife quality in urban environments. Based on the results of spatial modeling, the quality of life is more desirable in northern parts of the area (region 3) while the desirability decreases towards the southern areas (region 11). The study of Moran’s spatial autocorrelation index (greater than 0.35 for the results of both models and all seasons) emphasize on the non-randomness of the distribution method of the QOL feature in urban blocks and shows the existence of cluster pattern in the study area.The results of temporal modeling indicated that most of the blocks are more favorable in the spring and autumn seasons than in the winter and summer in terms of environmental conditions.

Geomorphology tourism or geotourismis one of the areas ofmodern studies in geoscience and tourism studies based on the identification of geomorphosites or special geomorphological sites. Geomorphosites are of new concepts that have entered the tourism literature with an emphasis on the location of special sites, therefore, it emphasizes on a set of geographical, geological andgeoarchaeology features. They also havescientific, ecological, cultural and economic values simultaneously and are utilized to understand and exploit human tourism. Geosites, which are a branch of geotourismgive rise to sustainable development in that region, due to their unique attractions. This new economy is completed in a network of cultural heritage and natural resources managements. Geosites of the region must be identified and introduced prior to any planning. Geosites in east Kurdistan province are very less known and only some of them have superficially drawn attentions,therefore, it has been tried to evaluate the capabilities of these geosites in this research while introducing them. This area, along with the attractions of geotourism has also sensitivities and limitations that can be severely damaged, if the red lines are violated. In fact, the purpose of this is to introduce Kurdistan geositeswith the aim of becoming more familiar with the capabilities of this geosite, as well as investigating the geotourist problems of the region in order to pay attention to the planning related to the tourism industry that can be economically effective on areas with geosites. This is an applied research, and descriptive-analytical method was used to analyze information and data. The final analysis has been carried out based on the results obtained from the evaluation of the values and criteria of geotourism. Survey procedure, field visits and field studiesas well as library and documentary studies have been used to collect information. The combination of library and field information will determine the overall value of the region’s geotourism. Two methods of Comanescu and Fassoulaswere used to evaluate the geosites in this research. In addition to evaluating geosites, the areas susceptible to geotourism development in the study area were zoned, and two Fuzzy and ANP models were used for this purpose. The methodology is in a way that the data layers first became fuzzy and comparable, using fuzzy model. Then, the obtained weight was multiplied by each one of the data layers, and thefinal map was obtained by integrating the data layers in Arc GIS. Finally, geosites which are susceptible to geotourism development were selected using the final results obtained from the zoning as well as the results obtained from the geosites evaluation by the use of two Comanescu and Fassoulasmodels. Discussion and results: After identifying the geosites, Comanescu and Fassoulas methods were used to evaluate them. For this purpose, library methods and experts’ opinionshavebeenused. First, the geosites were evaluated according to the criteria of Comanescu method, and based on the final results obtained from the evaluations, the GhalehQomchoqayhas the highestvaluewith a totalof 84 scores. After the GharQomchoqay, SarabQorveh and CheshmehTangzhave the highest valueswith 76 and 69 scores, respectively. Then the geosites were evaluated using the Fassoulas method, and according to the final results, GhalehQomchoqay and SarabQorveh with a total of 17.5 and 13 scores have the highest values, respectively. The results obtained from the evaluation by both Comanescu and Fassoulasmethods indicate the high value of GharQomchoqay and SarabQorveh for geotourism purposes. In the present research, in addition to the geosites evaluation, areas susceptible to development have been identified using the intended criteria and two Fuzzy and ANP models have been used for this purpose. After the evaluation done by the methods of Comanescu and Fassoulas,zoning of the areas susceptible to geotourism development was carried out,using the intended criteria. The results indicate that among the geosites of the study area, 8 geosites including GhalehQomchoqay,SarabQorveh, CheshmehTangz and Baba GoorGoor’sEzhdaha Mount, Badr and Parishan mountains, GharGolestaneh, KoohNesar and SarabBijar have a high Potential for the purposes of geotourism development. In most important of researches done in the country, the evaluation methods have only been used. However, the most important advantage of this research is that all the necessary criteria have been evaluated and the final result has been the outcome of the multi-criteria evaluation. In fact, in addition to the evaluation methods, the zoning methods have also been used. The use of zoning methods has led to taking the environmental factors into consideration in the selection of top sites and the sites selected as sexemplary sites need to meet all the necessary requirements for the development of geotourism infrastructure.

We live in a world where water has always been considered as one of the major issues. Currently, many people in developing countries are deprived of sufficient water to meet their basic needs. Lake Urmia is located between the longitudes45 to 46 ° East and latitudes 37 ° to 38.5 North. The lake is located in Zone 38 of theUniversal Transverse Mercator System (UTM). Lake Urmia is the largest inland lake in Iran and the second largest saltwater lake in the world. The desiccation or drying upcrisis of Lake Urmia with an area of about half a million hectares consideringits consequences has led to actions and plans by organizations, agencies and even people which still continues and has become a national issue. Investigating the changes in the water level and the volume of lakes in order to protect them, has acquired a special place among the countries both in national and regional levels during the recent years.Generally, there are two methods forthe collection of information from the objects and phenomena on the surface of the earth:one island methods (land access) and the other is remote sensing methods. In this regard,due to the importance of the issue, exploitation of satellite images and satellite altimetry observationsto study the water level and volume variations of Lake Urmia is the reason for the present research.In this research, Landsat satellite imagery in a 40 year period from 1976 to 2016 was used. Lake Urmia is located in 2 frames in some of these images and in 3 frames in some, and using them, the coastline map and the area of the Lake and its changes were obtained. To do this, ENVI software was used to perform the processing steps required to extract thecoastline changes, and ArcGIS software to perform cartography for the obtained outputs.After selecting the appropriate technique for implementation in order to analyze the extraction of the coastline changes, the steps can be expressed as the following:Selecting educational samples on the images, applying neural network classification method, evaluatingclassification accuracy, extracting coastline changes. After the classification is donewith the desired algorithm and the classification accuracy is verified, thedata output is divided into two main water and non-water applications. And then, as the boundary between the land and water is determined, the coastline can be extracted.In this research, three indexes of error matrix, overall classification accuracy and Kappa coefficient were used to assess the accuracy of the classification.It should be noted that in the selection of the water areas, three deep, medium depth and shallow water sections were taken into consideration and the choice of these areas in the infrared band which is particularly for the distinction between water and non-water was used.And finally, the accuracy of the classificationswas evaluated. Also, using Envisat and Saral altimeter satellite data,both of which have two passes over Lake Urmia, we obtained the water level of the lake in 2002-2015. For this purpose, we first processed the data,using the BRAT software, and obtained the balance level by applying the corrections related to the measurements of the satellite range and elevation in the MATLAB software. Now, using the amount of the lake surface area and its level in different years, we obtained calculated the volume changes and finally, the obtained resultswere compared with the results drawn from the land data which corresponded to the answers. In this research, the information of the area including runoffs flowing into Lake Urmia, we have also studied runoff flowing into the Lake Urmia region, surface and groundwaterwithdrawal, climate changes, changes in groundwater levels, investigation the volume changes in groundwater aquifersand...were studied as well. The results indicate that the area of Lake Urmiahas decreased from 5366 square kilometers in 1976 to 633 square kilometers in 2015, about one-eighth, and then with an increase has reached to 2383 square kilometersin 2016. The level of the lake water has decreased by 4 meters from 2002 to 2015 and has increased by 0.5 meters in 2016. The volume of water in Lake Urmia has decreased by 9.7 billion cubic meters from 2002 to 2015 and 1.2 billion cubic meters were added to it in the following year. The results also show that the largest reduction in the volume of the lake water has occurred in 2007-2012. The water inflow into the lake in 2014-15 comparing to 1995-96 has beenapproximately one fifth and has decreased to 700million cubic meters from 3,500 million cubic meters,And in fact the inflow water has decreased 2800 million cubic meters while, the groundwater withdrawal has increased by 360 million cubic meters in this period, which indicates an imbalance in the amount of inflow water and groundwater withdrawal. According to the results obtained, the main reason for reduction of the lake water is the withdrawal of surface and ground water. Therefore, avoiding uncontrolled water withdrawal, shutting down the unauthorized wells, opening the floodgates of dams as needed, to avoid the construction of other dams in the basin of the LakeUrmia, dredging of the rivers leading to the lake, as well as the reforming the agricultural methods and types of products are essential.

Given that, the tourism industry can play a significant role in the economy of any country, therefore, it can multiply the income generated by this industry through planning and providing tourists and travellers with easy access to tourist sites and service locations in any region or country. The necessity of paying attention to tourism and using modern technologies to expand it, and utilizing its numerous economic benefits for countries, research on the relationship between the expansion of information and communication technologieshasmadethe development of tourism necessary. Using the technology ofWeb GIS eliminates constraints such as the lack of sharing of data and different information between centers, the lack of easy access to the information needed at different times and locations, and the problems associated with updating them in the database. This researchhas investigated the role of GIS and the use of its Web environments (Web GIS) for wider, faster, cheaper access of tourists and guiding them to tourism and service information in the city of Kerman. To inform tourists and respond to their different needs such as informing about recreational places, ancient sites, cultural and service centers of the city of Kerman, roads (streets), as well as the implementation of the analytical functions required by any user on the city’s tourism map, such as searching for a place, question and answer from the related map (query), determining the best path, turning layerson and off, identifying the features, selecting, storing and printing parts of the map, in cooperation with the Statistics and Information technologyOrganizationofKermanmunicipality, designing and execution of WEB GIS system of tourism in the city of Kerman was carried out. The stages of performing this research for implementing and operating such system are as follows:1. Collection, compilation and providing data, hardware and software required
2. Creating a GIS database
3. Drawing and preparing the required maps in GIS
4. Correction of maps using aerial photos, satellite images of the study area and GPS
5. Preparing and completing the description table of the required maps
6. Hyperlinking of data with relevant features
7. Drawing the final tourism map of Kerman city
8. Uploading the tourism map of Kerman city on the web and determining the access level of each user In this research, the existing maps, corrected aerial photographs with the scale of 1:5000 related to the year 2013, and satellite images and GPS were used to collect the recreational, historical, cultural, religious, service and the roads of Kerman city. After collectingthe tourism features and identifying the type of GIS software (Arc GIS10.2), the required tourism data with an appropriate format for storing and designing the land-referenced database using the ArcSDE software was entered from the GIS environment into the created spatial database of SQL Server. After designing the database, maps of the features related to tourism of the study area were prepared and drawn in the GIS environment. In the tourist map, for better guidance of travelers and tourists, for all related features, an image of them in the GIS environment was attached to the related feature which is referred to as the Hyperlink. By moving the mouse over the features, and by clicking on the feature’s area, the appendix which is attached will openon the map.To facilitate the arrival of tourists and travelers to their destinations by the network analyses map, the streets map was edited first and then, the topology was determined for them and finally, the geometric network of the streets of Kerman was designed. Every tourist or traveler can, by specifying his/her origin and destination on the map, determine the route of reaching his/her destination with respect to the parameters such as traffic, the type of the street, etc., and chooses the shortest access path in terms of time on the map.Finally, to load the tourism map of Kerman city on the Web, the required software and hardware wereprepared. With regard to the hardware,an appropriate server device and high-speed Internet lines were taken into consideration. Regarding the software, ArcGIS Server 9.3.1 and ARC GIS Desktop 10.2 were selected. The most practical capabilities of the WebGIS in tourism that will cause the tourism development and more revenue for Kerman are the users’ access to the spatial and descriptive information of the cultural heritage sites, optimal routing for visiting places, planning and proposing the best tourism tour in a given time, searchingbased on the descriptions and finding the nearest tourism facilities, connection to documents and management capabilities.The most important issues that led to the implementation of Kerman’s tourism map Web GIS are the goals, the use and response to different requests of several users simultaneously. Presenting information in this way can provide a solution for distributing and disseminating data required on the Web and for public use. The advantages of using the Web GIS include online and updated access to maps and data via Internet connection, the possibilityof printing maps of a location, and more.

Droughts are long-term phenomena that affect vast areas, causing significant economic damages andlosses in human lives. Droughts are the most costly natural disaster in the world, and affect more people than any other natural disaster. Therefore, it is important to develop early warning systems to mitigate the effects of drought. The easiest way to monitor drought is to use drought indices that calculate drought severity, duration and actual range for each drought type. Several drought indices have been developed based on different variables and parametersto assess drought types. Soil moisture is a significant hydrological variable related to flood and drought and plays an important role in the process of converting precipitation into runoff andstorage of groundwater. Due to the difficulty, cost and time required for the field measurements of soil moisture, this parameter has not been widely used in drought indexes. Recent developments of global databases, based on satellite estimates, as well as rapid progress in hardware and software for modeling complex processes governing the water balance at the ground surface, have led to many efforts to deploy this new tool to reduce the limitations in this field. In this research, a new drought index based on soil moisture, derived from the land surface models of Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS-SMDI) has been provided to monitor the evolution of drought severity.Thisindex is based on the fact that soil moisture is a determinant factor in most of complex environmental processes and has an important role in the occurrence of drought. The central Iran is located between 27N-37N latitudes and 48E-61E longitudes with an area of about 837,184 km2. There are 50 synoptic stations within the area. In the present study, soil moisture derived from Global Land Data Assimilation System using the GLDAS-SMDI index was used to prepare the spatial distribution map of drought in central Iran over the period of 2001-2004. The accuracy of the GLDAS-SMDI index based on satellite data was carried out using the evaluation criteria of R and RMSE compared with drought spatial distribution map derived from the SPI index based on monthly precipitationdata of 50 synoptic stations. In this study, the drought spatial distribution index of Soil Moisture based on the Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS-SMDI) and SPI was obtained based on the monthly precipitation data from 50 synoptic stations over the period of 2001-2004. The results of the statistical criteria of the moisture drought spatial distribution mapcompatibility assessment based on GLDAS data with corresponding pixels on the drought spatial distribution map based on the precipitation data of thesynoptic stations showed that the drought severity map has had a high precision and good conformity with the land data (R=0.65, RMSE=0.22) based on GLDAS data.The highest correlation coefficient (0.74) was in 2004 and the lowest (0.45) in 2003.
The lowest and the highest mean errors in 2004 and 2001were 0.19 and 0.26, respectively,.The highest droughtseverity based on the GLDAS-SMDI index occurred in the Central Iran region at Iranshahr, Kahnuj, Bam, Baft and Birjandstationsduring the studied period. Droughts are hydro-meteorological anomalies characterized by prolonged shortage in regional water supply and can cause temporary difficulties (even failures) in water reservoirs. Today, most of the severe droughts are breaking out in terms of frequency, magnitude and duration due to constantly increasing water consumption, causing serious social, economic and environmental problems worldwide. Therefore, in order to deal with frequent droughts, great efforts have been made to estimate a more accurate assessment for better decision-making in order to prevent and mitigate drought losses. The most successful efforts among these methods might be the development and the use of various objective indices. In this research, the monthlymoisture data of the Global Land Data Assimilation System was evaluated to estimate the drought severity index based on soil moisture. The evaluation was performed using the coefficient of determination (R2) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). This analysis has demonstrated that the GLDAS products have very good compatibility with the land data over the selected area of Central Iran on monthly timescales and a 0.25° spatial scale. As a result, it can be said that the GLDAS data has a good potential for useful application of hydrological simulation and the calculation of water balance sheet, in the regions with low observations and low quality station. Therefore, it can be concluded that the soil moisture output of Global Land Data Assimilation System can be used for rapid and low cost estimation of drought severity based on soil moisture, which is a major factor in many complex environmental processes and has an important role in the occurrence ofdrought. In order to increase the spatial accuracy of drought intensity maps, it is recommended that the satellite data be combined with the values ​​of ground stations.

Today, cities in different parts of the worldare exposed to damages from natural hazards for various reasons. These hazards which are associated with lots of financial damages, fatalities and injuries, are in need for urgent preventive measures. Based on the United Nation International Strategic Plan for disaster reduction (UNISDR), all hazards have two natural and human activities origins.The province of Gilanis one of the northern coastal provinces, whose center is the city of Rasht. The objective of the present research is, analyzing and zoning geomorphic hazards in the province of Gilan. The method of this research is descriptive – analytical, and empirical. In the descriptive section, by using documentary studies and also in the analytical section, by identifying the effective parameters in the zonation of geomorphic hazards and integratingthem with the spatial analyses in GIS, vulnerable zones were identified in the study area.
In this research, the factors effective in the zonation of hazards were identified first. Then, in order to measure the significance of each of these factors, a questionnaire was prepared to carry out this important task by the method of ANP and by collecting the opinions of the relevant experts on each of the identified factors. After obtaining the opinions and using the fuzzy logic method, evaluation of each of the criteria and determination of their importance coefficients were done and based on its results, spatial evaluation was carried out using ARC GIS and high risks zones were identified.Results have shown that the use of fuzzy logic along with spatial analysis of GIS has been able to be used as an efficient tool in zoning geomorphic hazards and to prove the capability of the analytical model of research well. The performing method of this research is descriptive-analytical, which is compiled using documentary studies of required information and dat. In this study, it was attempted to investigate the geomorphic hazards in the province of Gilan. At first, the study area was identified. In the next stage, information layers such as slope, topography, vegetation, the elevation map of land use and… were prepared using 1: 50000 topographic maps, 1:100000 and 1: 250000 geological maps, and Digital Elevation Model (DEM), and finally, the provided effective information layers by the experts’ opinion and the obtained field and documentary studies were investigated in the form of network analysis model. Network Analysis Process (ANP) is one of the techniques for decision-making. When several indicators are considered for evaluation, the evaluation task becomes complicated, and when the criteria are of different genders, the work will become more complicated, and the evaluation and comparison go out of the analytical state which the mind is capable of performing), and a strong tool for practical analysis is needed. Therefore, the network analysis process is capable of doing this (Shadfar et al., 2007: 66). The network analysis process is one of the multi-criteria decision-making techniques. This model has been designed based on the hierarchical analysis process and replaces ‘network’ with ‘hierarchy’. The main assumption in AHP is based on the independent function of the hierarchical upper groups from all of its lower parts and from the criteria of each level and class (Chang et al., 2005: 22 and De Seun, 2004: 636).Saatyhas proposed the use of the hierarchical analysis model (AHP) to solve problems with independent and dependent criteria and solutions, and has established and presented the network analysis model (Lee and Kim, 2001: 374). Thus, the ANP method was presented as an extension of AHP.
As the AHP provides a framework for hierarchical structures with one-way relationships, the ANP also provides the possibility of complex internal relationships between different levels of decision and criteria. The ANP feedback approach has replaced the network structure with hierarchical structure, suggesting that the relations between different levels of decision-making can’t simply be imagined as up-down, dominant-recessive or direct-indirect.In general, the ANP model consists of a hierarchy of control, clusters, elements, interrelationships between clusters and elements (Sarkis, 2002; 23; Oraet et al., 2006: 247). The geomorphic hazards of Gilan province were evaluated and zoned in 6 stages (Saaty, 1392).
1- First step:At first, given the field and library studies as well as the experts of the issue, the research-related elements were defined from 4 clusters with 11 elements. The relations between the variables and clusters were determined using correlation analysis.
2- Second step: the pairwise comparison matrix and the relative weight estimation: the determination of relative weightin ANP is similar to AHP, In other words, the relative weight of the criteria and the sub-criteria can be determined throughpairwisecomparison.Pairwise comparisons of the elements in each level are done similar to the AHP method because of its relative significance to the criterion of control.
3- Third step:the formation of primary super matrix. The ANP elements interact with each other. These elements can be the decision-making unit, criteria, sub-criteria, the obtained results, options, and anything else. The relative weight of each matrix is calculated based on the pairwise comparison similar to the AHP method. The resulting weights are entered in the super matrix, which indicate the mutual relationbetween the elements of the system.
4- Fourth step: the formation of a weight super matrix: super matrix columns consist of several special vectors that the sum of each vectoris equal to 1. Therefore, it is possible that the sum of each column of primary super matrixto be more than 1. In order to factorize the column elements proportional to the relative weight, and that the sum of the column be equal to 1, each column of the matrix is ​​standardized. As a result, a new matrix is ​​obtained, the sum of each column of which will be equal to 1. The new matrix is ​​called the weight matrix. (FarajiShabbarbar et al., 2011: 56).
5- Fifth step:the calculation of the general weight vector: in the next step, the weight super matrix reaches to a power limit so that the matrix elements are converged and its row values are equal. The general weight vector is determined based on the matrix obtained.
6- Sixth step:the calculation of the final weight of the criteria: finally, the weight of each of the effective criteria is obtained. After determining the structure of the model and determining the weight super-matrices and the limit, the weight of each of the effective indices is obtained. After weighting the natural criteria effective in the zonation of the effective indices, using fuzzy logic technique in this stage, the maps of geomorphic hazards mapping of Gilan province are plotted

Results & Discussion: After determining the relationship between the effective criteria in geomorphic hazards, the experts’ opinions, the matrix of pairwise comparison, and the relative weight estimation, the formation of primary super matrix, the formation of weight super matrix, the calculation of the general weight vector, the calculation of the final weight of the criteria was carried out, using the mathematical operations in the ArcGissoftware. Then, using fuzzy logic technique, maps of geomorphic hazards zonation in Gilan province were drawn. Given the combination of all layers and the application of the coefficients obtained from the network analysis model, the final map of geomorphic hazard zonation was plottedand three vulnerable zones were obtained.
1- First zone - Northeast of the province: This is a zonewith high risks due to its location on the way of floods and geological features.
2-Second zone: south of the province: located in the vicinity of Roodbar and Rudsar, and to some extent Amlash, is considered as a part of high risky zones of the province. Closeness to the faultand relatively high slope are among the characteristics of this zone.
3-Third zone: center of the province: in the vicinity of the city of Bandar-e Anzali, Somesara is considered as high risk zones of the province. Flooding, high erosion, and slope movements to some extent are among the features of this zone. Investigating the situation and the value of vulnerable human environments against various types of geomorphological hazards seems to be very important and essential. Natural hazards, especially geomorphic hazards, have already had and have lots of financial and losses and fatalities. On this basis, natural hazards were considered as one of the basic studies in order to be able to control and reduce natural hazards. Thus, the most risky zones of Gilan province were integrated into critical centers such as mines in the province. In order to model and predict the relative risk of geomorphic hazards in the present research, an ANP network analysis model was used. For each of the different values ​​and ranges, a weight and score were obtained, for which the fuzzy sum of these scores and the integration of each layer in the obtained weight, determined the relative risk of the occurrence of geomorphic hazards. The results showed that three vulnerable zones in the northeast, south of the province I the vicinity of the cities of Roodbar and Rudsar, and to some extent,Amlash, and the center of the province in the vicinity of the cities of Bandar-Anzali, and Somesara, are risky and hazardous areas which are affected by the risks of flood and Geological features, proximity to faults and relatively high slopes, flooding, high erosion and, to some extent, movements of the slopes. The application of fuzzy logic along with spatial analysis of GIS has been able to be used as an effective tool forgeomorphic hazards zoning. In the end, it is necessary to note that the location of some of the zones at low levels of vulnerability and risk does not represent their idealsituation and determines only the place of the aforementioned zone in relation to other zones.

City has long been regarded as one of the human achievements by civilizations. Urban structure is part of the basic and mainconcepts of urban engineering knowledge and, in fact, is the foundation of its formation, and it is of great importance that some urban planners in developed countries regard it as equal to the spatial planning of the city. Today, lots of driving forces exert pressure on the environment. Change in land use and land cover is one of the pressures caused by driving factors such as population and its increase. The destruction of urban landscape, and change in land use and land cover are cases that constantly pressure the environmentof the country. Land use change is a complex and dynamic process thatinterconnect natural and human systems, therefore it directly relatesto many environmental issues that are globally significant. So, it can be stated that changes in urban structure has always been one of the most important factors, by whichmanhas influenced his environment. Given the role of environment in human life, precise information about the environmental change and the process of their changes should be achieved,which, can determine the extent of the expansion and destruction of resources, and guide these changes in appropriate courses by predicting urban structure changes. In this research, an eight-year period ofthe Google Earth images from Digital Globe, Astrium satellites for the years 2007-2015 was used to model the changes of the urban structure in the study area.
These images were then digitized to identify the desired uses. The required preprocessing was carried out by implementing the rules of topology, and the map of user changes for the two periods of 2007 and 2015 was prepared by inserting the images into the ENVE software, and land use was located in 12 educational, religious, park and green spaces, Residential, agricultural, gardens, industrial, sports, tree cover, wasteland and industrial land classes.Then, the transfer force modeling was carried out using the Perceptron of Multi-layer Artificial Neural Networks and 11 variables that include slope, direction, elevation, distance from residential areas, distance from agricultural lands, distance from the gardens, distance from the water zone, distance from the tree cover, distance from barren lands and distance from the road. Then, theassignment of changes to each use was calculated using the Markov Chain, and the modeling for the year 1402 was carried out using the hard prediction and calibration periodmodelofthe years1386to1394.At the end, the urban structureof 1402 was predicted using the Calibration period of 1386 to 1394. The results of monitoring the changes showed that agricultural uses (437) and tree cover (9) have decreased, while other uses have increased during two study periods. The reasons for these changes can be largely due to the increase in population and the increase in the needs of the population along with the agricultural not being cost effective, and the roads, wastelands, gardens, educational, religious, water zones, parks and green spaces, industrial, sports and residential uses have had an increasing trend. The results of modeling the transition forceusing artificial neural network showed high accuracy in most of the sub-models. The total error in modeling was obtained for the year 1394, which illustrates the high adaptability of the projected image of the model with the image of the ground reality and the acceptability of the model.The results of modeling for the year 1402 indicatea very high increase in the use of residential (195 hectares) and garden (104 hectares), and a significant reduction of 33 hectares in agricultural use. In general, it can be stated that the trend of Changes in the urban structure ofGhaemshahr, especially in agricultural and residential sectors is enormous, which leads to the degradation and destruction of the natural environment and the fragmentation of communication corridors that guarantee the balance and sustainability of wild life and the environment. All of these factors are due tothe poor urban and environmental management, including control, supervision and monitoring and the lack of proper planning. The findings of this research call for the necessity of more attention to the sustainable exploitation of the land and preventing its destruction in this city. The results obtained from the prediction of the future also indicate the reliability and validity of the model that is fully consistent with the reality and can be used as an executive model in the future vision planningfor the city ofQaemshahr, and it is possible to prevent damages to the city and its nature through proper urban planning and decision-making of managers.

Urban old fabrics are supposed to be one of the most vulnerable parts, which are affected in natural disasters mostly earthquakes. The buildings in such areas have no sufficient resistance because of long age and life span and in case of earthquake they are collapsed and may follow the losses of life and property. The main purpose of this article is to analyze and investigate the vulnerability of old fabrics in the downtown Boroujerd city to countermeasure the earthquake and to manage the crisis after the occurrence. The nature of this research is theoretical and practical and the research method is descriptive-analytial. The required data have been collected from library and through field work. In this study, AHP method is used to analyze the area under investigation. The extracted indices are analyzed with the help of GIS and Arcmap. The results indicate high and intensive vulnerability of buildings, if an earthquake occurs. The majority of buildings are suffering from low quality materials, high population density and the establishment of organic tissue and narrow alleys, which results in the rise of destruction and therefore, causes heavy losses of life and property. The readiness to counter the crisis can mitigate the earthquake effects and by knowing the special dimensions of vulnerable buildings , population and also road networks , can speed up the process, and by using time, reduce the casualties which is possible only when parameters are available for making geospatial data basis The research method was applied in terms of the aim, and descriptive-exploratory in terms of conduct. The pivotal principles of this investigation is based on vulnerable points in order to countermeasure the earthquake hazards. The collection of data is accomplished through library noting and field survey. In this study, the evaluation criteria and their weights were determined with acceptable accuracy by reviewing the literature, experts and paired in the form of AHP. The AHP method is used in this study to determine the vulnerability of old fabrics of the central Boroujerd city. This consists of six parameters and indices which include population density, passages width, building material ages, quality and the number and finally the number of floors. Weighing such parameters is carried out with the help of Expert Choice 2000 software and the weights are logged in the GIS software and in an Arcmap environment. The required analyses are observed on them. The area of this investigation is the old fabrics in downtown Boroojerd. The focus on this area is mainly due to old ages and the presence of significant historical places. The vulnerability factors are numerous, which are either natural, physical, social, economical, fundamental, rules and regulations , etc., but the most important boosting factors of the cities risk probabilities and their vulnerability enhancement can be summarized as Placement and locating of the city on various faults, Population concentration , failure to comply with retrofit rules and regulations, the lack of people’s knowledge of local citizen in facing emergency conditions and unexpected crises. The results of the research show that in order to find the most suitable pattern of intervention to countermeasure the vulnerability of old fabrics in the city downtown is to reduce the time laps after every local crisis like an earthquake, to reduce the effective factors by creating a spatial data basis for vulnerable buildings, congested population in buildings and a proper knowledge about the communication networks in the old fabrics to minimize the Consequences. Weighing of these parameter, are carried out with the help of Expert Choice 2000 software and the weights are logged in the GIS software and in an Arcmapenvironment. The required analyses are plotted and observed on them. It is concluded that, in the southern, western and central parts of old fabrics in Boroojerd city, the relief operations and crisis management efforts should be extended and the precautionary measures and preparedness must be augmented. Several suggestions have been proposed in order to minimize the casualties and damages in case of any probable threats and crisis, which include the renovation and reconstruction of structures with high ages and the improvement along with strengthening the old fabrics and their reinforcement. It has also been concluded that the majority of buildings are suffering from low quality materials, high population density and the establishment of organic tissues and narrow alleys, which results in the rise of destruction and therefore, causes heavy losses of life and property.

Among the natural disasters, floods involve the highesthuman casualties. The economic damages of flood in developing countries, including Iran, is much more, and its occurrence is very high particularly in the cold months of the year in the west of the country. By studying the synoptic maps of the Earth’s surface and the middle and upper levels of the atmosphere, many Earth-surface phenomena such as flood, based on the spatial arrangement of the pressurecurves or the height and the location of patterns on these maps, the pattern of daily weather conditions can be controlled and the origin of many of these phenomena can eventually be determined. Precipitation is the major climate phenomenon resulting from the complex interactions of the climate system and it has a complex behavior due to the bond with various components of the climate system. The occurrence of precipitation requires the provision of several conditions. The availability of moisture, deep instability and cooling, are the prerequisites for the occurrence of precipitation. All of these conditions must appear in its strongest state for the occurrence of super heavy rainfalls.The western region of Iran is a suitable area for exacerbating and extending rainfall and sometimes flooding due to the presence of mountains. This is because the role of mountains in in capturing air humidity plays a significant role in increasing the atmospheric precipitations.There are two types of approaches in synoptic studies: circulatory to environmental, and environmental to circulatory. In the study of precipitation, the environmental to circulatory classification and approach are used. The reason for thisis that, the temporal and spatial variations of rainfall are severe,and the environmental to circulatory method allows the researchers to concentrate on the precipitation and, consequently, on the synoptic patterns whichtheyintendtostudy.In this study, the heavy and pervasive rainfall in the province of Kermanshah on October 27-30, 2015, was selected and it was attempted to analyze the synoptic and thermodynamic conditions of the occurrence of this torrential rain. In this research, the environmental to circulatory approachwas used. To conduct such studies, two databases are required. In this paper, which was conducted with the aim of analyzing the heavy rainfall synoptic situation in Kermanshah province (on October 27-30, 2015), two databases have been used. First, the daily rainfall data from October 25 to 31, 2015 were extractedby referring directly to digital files sent by the stations to the Iranian Meteorological Organization, and then, the high atmospheric variables on the same date were used for synoptic and thermodynamic analysis of the aforementioned precipitation and to see how the synoptic systems entered the region. Data related to the station’s level pressure, geopotential height, orbital and meridional components of wind and moisture at different levels of the atmosphere from the database related to high atmosphere data were obtained from the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Center for Environmental Prediction, and National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP / NCAR) with a spatial resolution of 2.5 by 2.5 arc degrees. Then, for the synoptic analysis of the aforementioned rainfall, daily maps of the Earth’s surface and the levels of 850 and 500 hPa were plotted in the GrADS software. Drawings of these maps were carried out 48 hours prior to the start of the rainfall until the day of full stop. The instability indices KI, LI, SW and SI were also usedfor the thermodynamic analysis of the high atmosphere data of Kermanshah and obtaining the extent of instability in the study days. In the analysis of the Earth’s surface synoptic mapson the day of torrential rains, the southern system appearsas a low-pressure field and has the highest power in the Red Sea and Sudan region, and the low-pressurecurrent has been drawn to the center of Iran, and extends over a vast areafrom the east and south of the European high pressure to the west and center of Iran and the conditions of instability are dominant in these areas. The ascending currents have increased because of the intensity of pressure reduction. It seems that the intense pressure gradient between the Sudan’s low-pressure and the European high-pressure current is one of the causes of the occurrence of torrential rains during the studied period in the province of Kermanshah. All stations in Kermanshah province have reported rainfalls under this very strong pressure and moisture from the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea. Enhancement of the low level system of the Earth’s surface and the downfall of cold weatherin high latitudes by polar troughat the level of 500 hpa contributes to the occurrence of atmospheric instability and the onset of rainfall in the west of the country. The trough is located on the eastern Mediterranean in such a way that, its axis at the end of the Mediterranean trough passes over the Red Sea. on the eastern part of this trough’s axis (Red Sea descent), there is air turbulence from the west of the Red Sea to the north of the Caspian sea, which causes low pressure of the Earth’s surface to be raised to high latitudes. If this trough is strengthened while moving eastward, it will contain thunderstorm, rain and snow, in case of having enough moisture on its way, which is from southwest to the northeast, while passing over the heights. At the beginning of the heavy rainfall, the subtropical jet stream is onNorth Africa and the polar jet stream is on the areas located on the north of the Caspian and Black Sea. The amount of precipitation increase dramatically as these two jet streams get closer to each other, the polar jet stream changes position to the lower latitudes, and the subtropical jet stream moves towards the northeast. In the study of instability indices, there has been dispersed thunderstorm according to the LI instability index.The probability of dispersed shower on October 28 is very low according to the S1 index and the study area will witness very storms with low intensity on this day according to SW index. According to the KI index, this probability reaches to 60-80% in Kermanshah province on October 28 (peak day of precipitation).