مجله تاریخ و تمدن اسلامی
پیاپی 29 (بهار و تابستان 1398)

The legitimacy of the early caliphs was seriously challenged by the lack of consensus among the Ummah and their strong competitors. On the other hand, Abu Bakr's first act after solving the problem of murtads (apostates) was the beginning of the conquests, which brought in great wealth and prosperity. There seems to be a strong link between the conquests and the reputation and legitimacy of the caliphs. This study first examines the role of conquests in legitimizing the rule of the first three caliphs and then discusses its closure during the caliphate of Imam Ali (AS) and its effect on the emergence of government issues. The findings of this study indicate that the benefits of the conquests played a major role in the satisfaction of the Arabs with the caliphs' rule, but the government problems had been grown since the relatives of Uthman got the profits and then the conquests during the caliphate of Imam Ali (AS) were closed.

This paper seeks to investigate and explore the fields, causes, and consequences of the presence of non-Muslim physicians (dhimmi) in the Islamic courts in the middle Age. According to the statistical survey of biography books of the physicians, nearly half of the well-known and renowned physicians who worked in Muslim courts were Christian as well as Jewish and, in some cases, Saebi and Samaritans. The caliphs' and courtiers' needed to the therapists and the shortage of Muslim expert physicians in compare with non-Muslim physicians and also the tolerance of the caliphs had made a safe atmosphere for non-Muslim physicians. The presence of those physicians in the courts led to the progress of medical knowledge and practice in addition to treatment. Being aware of the secrets of power and politics changed the physician’s characters and dignity and caused their involvement in the political conflicts and their consequences.

Kitab al-Furūq by al_Hakīm al-Tirmidhī (ca. 230-320 AH) is comprising the spiritual norms and moral values of Islamic Sufism with psycho analysis of Human nature. The book approach has made it significant in the history of Psycho analysis in Islamic Civilization. Although, almost all traditional and modern scholars disscussed the book, they were not familiar with it and introduced it as an structureless encyclopedia containing twofold controversial words, to be like the author's another work: Tahsīl Nazāir al-Qur'ān. This study aimed to criticize this presupposition. we are going to survey the book by different methods of content analysis to find out author's real aim in compilation such a book. Without naming any group, it seems that al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi divided people into three different types: ordinary people, ordinary clergy men, and high rank clergy men, the typology he mentions in his another books by terms like al-‘amma, al-Khawāṣ, and Khāṣ al-Khawāṣ.

The cultural and political endeavors of Shiites took a new direction with the fall of Abbasid Caliphate and the emergence of Ilkhanids  in the second half of the seventh century. The policy of religious tolerance improved the Shi'a writings. One of the works of this era that is known as Ghurar-al-Akhbar by Hasan ibn Muhammad Diylami. The purpose of this work is to prove the Imamate of Ali (AS), to explain the Shiite principles and beliefs and to promote this religion. His seemingly rationalistic analysis and approach to sirah writings , given the context of the Eighth Century society, are worthy of attention. In this paper, by  a descriptive and analytical approach, introduce Diylami and his Book  and consider his Historical Insight. The achievement of this study reflects the fact that in spite of the placement of Ghurar al-Akhbar in the collection of Shiite historical works, this work, with  an idealistic nature,  is an example of Shiite virtue-oriented sirah writing.

Investigating and evaluating Islamic historical and geographical sources and determining their authenticity or imitation help the researchers for using those works. Such investigations of later works, which are assumed to be based on earlier works, are necessary. One of those sources is the khatimah (epilogue) of al-Rawza al-Safa, which researchers are at odds with each other over its author or authors. Authors of the paper after deep exploring of content of "Khātimah" and also applying comparative method have found out that "Khātimah" of Rawḍat al-ṣafā is in fact co-written by Mir-khand, author of Rawḍat al-ṣafā, and his grandchild Khand-Mir who made a final formulation for his grandfather's notes and also added some points on his his work. The study also showed that all data of "Khātimah" (about ninety percent) were borrowed from other writers, especially previous geographers, and only ten percent of its content is from its authors, Mir-Khand and Khand-Mir, and, obviously, this part is authentic and notable with the specific importance.

As the Safavid kings determined to confined the Sufis of Qizilbash power and using Shari'a for obtaining legitimacy, the raddiah (refutation) texts of some jurisprudents against Sufism also have grown significantly in the second half of the Safavid era. One of the influential Ikhbari jurisprudents was Mulla Taher Qomi, who by writing many dissertations in opposition to Sufism is also considered as the most prolific raddiah writers. This paper, by using Van Leeuwen and Laclau Mouffe's analysis patterns, explores linguistic propositions and disclose discourse constructions of one of those controversial texts, Radd-i-sufiya . The paper indicates that the author, from the point of view of his superior argument, Shia and Sharia of Islam, is against the rival discourse around the central point of tariqah and haqiqah, and thus, with the misunderstanding and diminution of semantic elements of discourse, introduce Sufism as non-Islamic and sometimes originated from the Sunnite. These pretensions and the intensification of otherness between the two discourses had a profound effect on subsequent hegemonic interventions, especially during the Qajar period. Hegemony with the means of force gave certainty and unambiguity in conflicts to the Sufi discourse. As a result of this intervention, formally, Sufism and any mystic recitations of religion was marginalized in public discourse, and the formalist discourse was the dominant discourse of the religious understanding in the society.

Accurate understanding of terms related to methods of text editing which developed in the West, can impact the researchers’ approach to editing the manuscripts of the Qur’an and can prevent possible misunderstandings and consequent incorrect results. This article, draws on the Lachmann method to express the terms related to this method in the study of early Qur'anic manuscripts. This work attempts to show that in the first step of this method called “recension”, (i.e., gathering and categorizing the surviving evidence) to what extent providing the exact instances for each term can be effective in determining the weight of each evidence in the process of editing and forming the “stemmacodicum”. The present paper also attempts to study the applicability of each of these methods principles of emendatio regarding the Qur'anic text and to examine the fruit of establishing an “apparatus criticus” of the text of the ancient Qur'anic manuscripts.