نشریه مهندسی مکانیک مدرس
سال بیستم شماره 4 (فروردین 1399)

In this paper, an experimental and numerical study on the inelastic deformation of fully clamped circular, rectangular and triangular plates under the low-velocity hydrodynamic loads has been conducted using the drop-hammer machine. In the experimental section, steel and aluminum plates with three different geometries of circular, rectangular and triangular in different thicknesses of 1 to 3 mm were examined. Experiments were carried out under different levels of energy by changing the height and mass of the hammer and the maximum permanent transverse deflection was recorded as the test output. For better understanding the effect of effective parameters in these experiments, the Design-Expert software was used. In this software, the simultaneous effect of these parameters was investigated using the response surface method. The plate thickness, the standoff distance of the hammer and the mass of hammer were considered as independent quantitative parameters, and the geometry of the plates along with the material of plates was considered as independent qualitative parameters. The obtained regression model has a confidence level of 95% for output prediction. Accordingly, the p-value for the model is less than 0.05, which means that the regression model is significant. The values of R2 and R2adj was 0.9803 and 0.97131, respectively. The results of the regression model have a good agreement with experimental results. In all experiments, the standoff distance of the hammer was the most effective parameter while the mass of the hammer had the least effect on the response. The optimum conditions for each plate were also determined.

Increasing workpiece surface quality and reducing tool wear are always the most important ones in machining purposes. There are basic challenges to achieve optimum conditions for workpiece surface and tool life in different machining operations of austenitic stainless steel 304L due to low thermal conductivity and creating high temperatures at the cutting zone. Applying conventional cooling methods such as flood techniques does not usually provide desirable control of machining temperature. Also, their use often creates environmental problems. Recently, the cryogenic cooling process has been considered by researchers to reduce these problems in various machining methods. In this research, turning of 304L stainless steel using cryogenic cooling of CO2 have been studied to investigate the effect of flow rate and fluid spraying method on workpiece surface roughness and tool wear. For this purpose, the tool-workpiece contact zone has been cooled in five different methods of CO2 fluid spraying according to the number and position of the spraying nozzles (Up1, Up2, Down, Up1-Down, Up2-Down) and three different flow rates (12, 18 and 24 l/min). The minimum main flank wear of the tool was achieved in the Up1 cooling method and 18 l/min flow rate and the minimum workpiece surface roughness was achieved in the Up1 cooling method and 12 l/min flow rate. Regarding economic considerations to reduce the consumption of spraying flow of CO2 fluid and achieving the minimum main flank wear of the tool, built-up edge and workpiece surface roughness, the optimum spraying method and flow rate were obtained as Up1 and 12 l/min, respectively.

The heat pipe is an efficient heat transfer device and can transfer large amounts of heat with a small temperature difference between the hot and cold sources quickly. In the present study, a two-dimensional numerical simulation method was used to analyze the thermal performance of heat pipes with double-ended cooling with the middle evaporator and to investigate the effect of operating conditions, wick and retaining chamber characteristics on it. The governing equations were discretized by ANSYS Fluent software and then solved using suitable boundary conditions. The wall temperature profile of the heat pipe was obtained. Then, to validate the results and to investigate the effect of using two condensers on the thermal resistance of the heat pipes, an experimental apparatus was used. Numerical results were compared with the valid numerical and experimental results that had very good and acceptable accordance. The results showed that the heat pipes with double-ended cooling with a middle evaporator had a lower thermal resistance than conventional heat pipes. The amount of thermal resistance increased with increasing the thickness and porosity of the wick. However, increasing the evaporators and condensers length, as well as increasing the thickness and internal diameter of the retaining chamber, reduced the thermal resistance. The results also showed that the heat pipes, which the materials with higher thermal conductivity were used in their wick and retaining chamber's manufacturing, had a lower thermal resistance. Finally, it was found that the increase of thermal power had no significant effect on the thermal resistance.

Selective laser sintering is one of the most popular additive manufacturing techniques used in recent years, due to its capability to build complicated geometries without the support structure. Thermal history plays a major role in the mechanical properties of the final product. In this research, the effects of different cooling down processes on mechanical properties of PA12 parts produced by selective laser sintering have been investigated. For this purpose, temperature changes of different points inside the powder bed during the built and cool down process have been monitored and recorded. Crystallization kinetics for the produced parts has been investigated by the non-isothermal crystallization model to help the interpreting of the results. Differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis were performed to find the degree of crystallinity and its possible correlation with mechanical properties. The results indicated that the parts cooled with the lower cooling rate showed 5% higher tensile strength and 10% more crystalline structure fraction comparing with the other two cool down methods. The results of crystallization kinetics for the produced parts by non-isothermal crystallization model showed that a lower cooling down rate led to slower crystallization in the component. The degree of crystallinity of the slow cooling down parts was about 10 percent more than the other samples. Based on the XRD results, the crystalline structure of the parts in all cooling down processes was the same (γ form crystal).

Manufacturing products using powder compaction is one of the most widely used methods in the industry. In this paper, dynamic compaction of aluminum powder under low-velocity impact loading was investigated using a drop hammer testing machine along with the optimization of effective parameters in this process. In this series of experiments, the green density and green strength of compacted products were measured. The response surface methodology was used to study the influential parameters in the powder compaction process. In this method, the effects of independent parameters including the grain particle size, the hammer mass, and the standoff distance of the hammer on the green density and green strength were evaluated. In the current study, two separate analyses were performed for each output response and the obtained results were summarized in ANOVA tables. The results showed that the p-value for the model is less than 0.05, which means that the model is significant. The values of R2 for the green density and green strength are equal to 0.9956 and 0.9912, respectively. The results of the optimization section indicate that the optimum case, the maximum green density as well as green strength at the same time, occurs when the grain particle size, the hammer mass and the standoff distance of the hammer have the maximum values. The factors o standoff distance of hammer and grain particle size have the highest and least effect on responses.

In the present study, solid particle erosion of Ti-6Al-4V alloy under multiple particles impact was investigated using finite element modeling. The erosive behavior of this ductile alloy has been simulated as a micro-scale impact model based on Johnson-Cook plasticity and failure equations. Erosive behavior is usually described by the volumetric erosion rate, which is introduced as the eroded volume ratio of alloy surfaces to the mass of the eroding particles. In this paper, the results of the finite element model were validated by comparing with results of typical erosion models. Then, effective factors on erosive behavior of alloy, such as impacting particles velocity, particles size, particles impact angle, temperature effects, and particles shape will be investigated. Results show that there is an exponential relation between particle velocity and erosion rate. Also, as particle size increases, the erosion rate increases at first and after a specific particle size, erosion rate presents a constant trend. The maximum erosion rate has been recorded at an impact angle of 40 degrees and a temperature of 473 Kelvin (average temperature of the middle stages of the compressor). It is shown that when spherical particles shape changes to the angular shape, the erosion rate increases more than four times.

The theory of mechanical-vibration energy harvesting from the environment has been studied by researchers in the recent decade. In the present research, the vibration of the viscoelastic cantilever beam was analyzed with two piezoelectric layers including series and parallel connections. The beam was exposed under moving and rotating base excitation and aero-elastic force. The beam viscoelastic material was described using the generalized Kelvin-Voigt mechanical model. The aero-elastic force based on piston theory is considered while the base excitation is selected harmonic and randomly. The stress field coupling among the beam and piezoelectric as well as Gauss equation were utilized to extract the vibration and electrical equations respectively. The vibratory equation was converted into a set of ordinary differential equations using the Galerkin approach. The obtained equations with electrical equation were solved by the Runge-Kutta method numerically. Then, by studying the response of the governing equations, the effect of system parameters on the vibrational behavior of the beam and the output voltage was investigated. The results showed that the system and response frequencies are not affected via circuit connection types (series or parallel). The natural vibratory frequency is increased with enhancing the beam stiffness. The structural damping has a significant effect on the output voltage value. Also, the output voltage is increased by enhancing the environmental pressure.

The closed-circuit cooling tower is described as the combination of both wet and dry cooling towers that hot water passes through the bundle of tubes as in the dry cooling towers and surrounding air passes around them in a forced or natural regimes. Thus, secondary water circulates as an open cycle and is sprayed on the bundle of tubes to preserve the tower cooling process. In the present research, the operation of a model of the closed-circuit wet cooling tower has been investigated numerically and experimentally. The effects of environmental condition on process water temperature, sprayed water temperature and air temperature have been evaluated, and the mass and heat transfer coefficients on the surface of hot water tubes have been calculated. According to these results, surrounding air temperature and humidity increasing decreases the tube outer surface mass and heat transfer coefficients. The mass and heat transfer coefficients rates are decreased by about 3% and 4% between the 278 and 288 K and are 6% and 7% between the 288 and 298 K inlet air temperature, respectively. The mass and heat transfer coefficients are both 18% for air inlet temperature between the 298 and 308 K. After 308 K these values are 4%. The decreasing rate of heat and mass transfer coefficient with increasing relative humidity from 10% to 20% is very low and from 20% to 40% is almost constant, and from 40% to 50% a 16% decrease in heat and mass transfer coefficients is observed.

Motor units’ malfunction, which happens due to stroke, often affects patients’ hand motion and subsequently restricts their daily activities and social participation. All these factors reduce the patient’s life quality. Therefore, finding a solution to overcome these limitations and improving hand function seems to be valuable. So far, many efforts have been done to design and develop different types of rehabilitation systems. Among all these systems, soft systems have attracted great attention due to their light weight, flexibility, safe interaction and affordability. The goal of this study is to fabricate a soft rehabilitation glove for hand function retrieval so that patients can perform rehabilitation exercises individually. The rehabilitation system presented here includes two different control modes including on/off and proportional modes. Each of them is selected based on patients’ needs. For verification purposes, trajectories of the finger tips were obtained in two modes: “using the glove” and “without using the glove”. Results showed that trajectories of the finger tips in the "using the glove" mode follow a proper path for the user’s digits.

Magnesium and its alloys have received much attention not only in the aerospace and electronics industry, but also in medical applications due to its low density, excellent physical properties, and biocompatibility. However, magnesium and its alloys have low ductility and poor strain hardening ability because of the hexagonal crystal structure with the limited number of slip systems at room temperature. Therefore, it seems necessary to improve their ductility and other mechanical properties via novel technologies. In this research, hydrostatic cyclic expansion extrusion has been used to produce ultrafine-grained magnesium rod. Properties of produced rods have been investigated morphologically and mechanically. The numerical investigation has also been performed to show the effects of hydrostatic pressure on strain distribution. Due to the brittleness of magnesium, the process has been conducted at elevated temperatures. Also, due to the fluid limitation at high temperatures, melted polyethylene has been used as the fluid in the process. The results showed that the yield and ultimate strength increased by 54% and 43% after only one pass of the hydrostatic cyclic expansion extrusion process, respectively. Also, elongation increased by 46%. Furthermore, microhardness has also increased with an average of 57 Hv to 70 Hv. The microstructure result showed that the grains become ultrafine-grained after only one pass of the process. Finite element investigation revealed that high hydrostatic pressure has a good effect on improving the strain distribution and the microstructure. This process seems very appropriate for industrial applications due to its ability to produce long ultrafine-grained rods.

Hydrostatic tube cyclic expansion extrusion process is a newly invented severe plastic deformation technique for producing long ultrafine-grained and nanostructured tubes with higher mechanical properties. In the present research, this process was applied through two passes at room temperature on the commercial purity copper. Then, the hardness, tensile properties, fracture surface and microstructure of the samples were evaluated. The main goal of this research was to achieve a material with a simultaneous high strength and desirable ductility. In this process, the utilization of pressurized fluid between the die and the tube leads to first, the desired improvement of mechanical properties due to the effects of hydrostatic compressive stress. Second, the reduction of a required deforming force to eliminating the friction between the die and the tube leads to the facilitation of producing relatively long ultrafine-grained and nanostructured tubes. After two passes of process, a nearly equiaxed and homogeneous ultrafine-grained (UFG) microstructure was observed. The yield strength and ultimate strength increased from 75 MPa and 207 MPa to 310 MPa and 386 MPa, respectively. However, elongation to failure decreased from 55% to 37%. Also, the hardness value of the tube increased significantly from 59 Hv to 143 Hv, and the uniform distribution of hardness was obtained through the thickness of the tube. The fractography evaluations revealed that the predominantly ductile fracture happened in all samples of tensile testing. The hydrostatic tube cyclic expansion extrusion process can be utilized as a practical industrial method for producing relatively long ultrafine-grained tubes.

Hydrogels are the smart polymeric materials, which undergo large deformation when they are subjected to different physical and chemical stimuli in contact with fluids. These materials can be applied as sensors and actuators for instance in microfluidics in which the fluid-solid interactions have an important effect on its performance. On the other hand, the use of graded materials is also important considering their advantages. In this study, the behavior of a functionally graded temperature sensitive hydrogel micro-valve is investigated through considering the fluid-solid interactions. In this regard, the appropriate numerical tool for finite element modeling of a functionally graded hydrogel micro-valve has been developed that it has been implemented in both non fluid-solid interactions and fluid-solid interactions simulation. The homogeneous cases of the micro-valve have also been considered to distinguish the functionally graded temperature sensitive hydrogel micro-valve effect. The results indicate that the effect of fluid-solid interactions was important and have considerable impact on micro-valve operating parameters particularly its closing temperature and fluid flow rate. Thus, a comprehensive study on hydrogel-based micro-valve has been presented  considering operating parameters such as inlet pressure and cross linking density of hydrogel.

In this study, an abrasive water jet machining process was used to evaluate the machinability of Hardox 400 steel, as one of the most widely used materials in the sheet metal industry. In this regard, surface roughness and geometrical tolerances (flatness, parallelism, and perpendicularity) were considered as the machining outputs, and water jet pressure, the weight percentage of abrasive particles, nozzle gap and feed rate were considered as the process input parameters. Followed by machining tests, the measurement of geometrical tolerances and surface roughness was performed through coordinate measuring machine (CMM) and surface roughness tester, respectively. The obtained results indicate that by the increase of jet pressure, decrease of feed rate, decrease of nozzle gap and increase of abrasives particles weight fraction, the surface quality improves and the geometrical errors reduce. Also, it was observed that the best surface roughness and geometrical tolerances have been obtained in the case of water jet pressure of 300 MPa, the feed rate of 10 mm/min, the abrasive weight percentage of 30% and nozzle gap of 1 mm. By repeating the experimental tests, it was shown that the relative error of the obtained results is less than 10%, which indicates the high repeatability of the results.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate and compare the aerodynamic coefficients obtained from the wind tunnel, numerical solution (Fluent) and engineering software (MD) for a cruise missile. The results are obtained in zero deflection of the control surfaces. For this purpose, the analysis has been carried out on the aerodynamic coefficients of the three Mach numbers: 0.6, 0.75, and 0.85, and various angles of attacks. The results of the numerical solution for calculating the coefficients of the lift, drag, normal and axial forces are respectively with a mean difference of 8.6, 1.7, 8.3 and 8.4 percent, respectively, in comparison with the wind tunnel. The results of the MD software for drag and axial forces are acceptable with an average error of 11% and 20%, respectively. Also, the existence of errors in the MD software, such as taking into account the effects of the air inlet opening only in the axial direction, shows that this method is unreliable in the present study. The results show that there is a great similarity between the behavior of the aerodynamic coefficients changes relative to the angle of attack in all three experimental and numerical methods and the MD software. Also, the pitching moment coefficient variation according to the angle of attack indicates that the trim angle varies from +6 to + 7 degrees.

In this paper, a new active vibration control system has been proposed for the elimination of boring bar chatter in the internal turning process. The system is composed of a boring bar equipped with electromagnetic actuator and accelerometer, as well as a novel adaptive control algorithm that is widely used in the field of active noise control. The controller is known as feedback FxNLMS and is composed of two finite impulse response adaptive filters. One of the filters is known as a model filter, which predicts the dynamic model of actuator-boring bar assembly. The other is known as the control filter and anticipates the inverse model of forwarding path dynamics. The weight vector of the adaptive filter is adjusted by using the normalized least mean square algorithm. Firstly, the impact test is conducted in the presence of an adaptive controller. It is observed that the magnitude of the dominant mode on the forward path’s frequency response function is drastically suppressed by 36 dBs. Secondly, the internal turning tests are conducted on Aluminum alloy 6063-T6, to investigate the performance of the adaptive controller for the purpose of chatter mitigation. Due to the optimal performance of the adaptive controller, the dominant magnitude of the boring bar’s power spectral density is successfully attenuated up to 68 dBs, and the critical limiting depth of cut is increased by 10 folds. Also, the roughness of the machined surface is remarkably improved by 8 folds compared to the control-off cutting test. Moreover, the actuator cost is considerably reduced by 3 folds in comparison to the optimal constant-gain integral controller.

Cortical bone milling is used in orthopedic surgeries such as knee replacement, otological, spinal cord, and hip replacement. The cutting forces created by the cutting tool during cortical bone milling in order to control the wear of the tool as well as applying allowable force to the bone to prevent fracture should be controlled. In this paper, the effective parameters in the bone milling including cutting speed, feed rate, cutting depth and tool diameter has been investigated using the response surface method in order to predict the cutting forces. In this method, a second-order linear regression equation can be presented in order to predict the behavior of the bone milling process precisely. Also, Sobel's sensitivity analysis method was used to study the effect of input parameters on the behavior of cutting force. In this research, the behavior of different input parameters and the effect of their interactions on the machining force has been evaluated and analyzed. The components of cutting force were measured and investigated in three directions of feed, perpendicular to the feed and perpendicular to the bone surface. The results show that the mathematical model governing the problem has a proper function within the range of the defined parameters and it can provide a good prediction of force behavior. The minimum cutting force can be achieved in a rotational speed of 1500 rpm, feed of 12 mm/min, tool diameter of 2 mm, and cutting depth of 0.2 mm. Also, about the sensitivity of the force behavior based on the input parameters variation in the range of experiments, the greatest effect was related to the cutting depth with 36.3% of the effect, and feed rate with 28.4% of the effect, the diameter of the tool with 27.5% of the effect and the rotational speed with 7.8% of the effect.

3D printing technology is used in a variety of industries without auxiliary tools because it is flexible in producing and reduces the waste of material. In this paper, the laser cutting process of polylactic acid sheets has been investigated by a 3D printer. The fused deposition modeling (FDM) method was used for printing the sheets. Production of sheets with a thickness of 2.3 mm by optimal conditions was conducted (each layer was perfectly solid with a thickness of 0.27 mm, and the extruder temperature of 226.62 °C). The laser used in this paper is a CO2 low-power, continuous-wave laser. Laser input parameters including laser cutting speed, focal point position, and laser power were selected as the variables. By performing several experiments, the effective range of each parameter was evaluated. The upper and lower cut width, the angle of cone and the upper cut width ratio to the lower cut width of the process output parameters were selected. The optical microscope was used to examine the geometric characteristics of cutting kerf of the samples and then the images were measured using ImageJ software. The purpose of this paper is the laser cutting process to achieve cutting kerfs with good quality and proper setting of laser input parameters.

One of the main aims of the current study is the experimental investigation and optimization of the dynamic response of polymer-coated aluminum plates under impulsive load. In the experimental study, the effect of several important parameters on the free forming of these structures under gas mixture detonation load, including the effect of aluminum plate thickness and polymeric coating, as well as the effect of applied load on the maximum permanent transverse deflection were investigated. In the optimization section, Design Expert Software was used to investigate the simultaneous effect of the mentioned parameters on the plastic deformation of the structure. In this software, the effect of independent parameters such as metal sheet thickness, polymer-coated thickness and loading impulse on the deflection of the two-layer structure has been investigated using the response surface method. Accordingly, the p-value for the model was less than 0.05, which means that the model is significant. The value of R2 is also equal to 0.9980. The results indicate that the presented model is suitable for these experimental data. The values obtained from the prediction of the model are consistent with the experimental results. Optimal conditions for the minimize deflection of the two-layer structure were also determined and tested experimentally. The result indicates that the prediction of the regression model and experimental data have a good agreement.

Nowadays, the use of a non-contact digital imaging system for non-destructive testing on composite materials has received much attention because of its advantages. In this research, the shape, position and area of ​​the breakdown region in glass/epoxy samples with blind holes and different depths under tensile loading have been investigated using a non-contact digital imaging system. Specimens with a 10 mm diameter blind, depths of 0.5, 1 and 1.5 mm, and an average thickness of 4 mm have been subjected to the tensile loading. Lateral strain contours for all three samples have been obtained at different loads. By increasing the lateral strain loading, it focuses on an area on the surface of each specimen that corresponds to the position of the blind hole. Then the lateral strain is measured separately in length and width for each specimen. Increasing the amount of loading and the depth of the breakdown have resulted in greater strain concentration in the breakdown area as well as increasing the accuracy of the digital images correlation system. The position, shape, area, and diameter of the blind hole measured by digital image correlation method have been compared with real values, which considering the acceptable consistency of the results of the digital image correlation method with the features of each sample, It can be used as an efficient method for detecting and evaluating failures in composite structures.

The effects of tempering heat treatment on girth weld containing titanium oxide and titanium carbide nanoparticles (X-65 grade of the gas pipeline) were evaluated. The Charpy results show that it has been respectively increased by 26% and 15% in the tempered sample containing titanium oxide and titanium carbide nanoparticles compared to the no heat treatment sample (containing titanium carbide and titanium carbide nanoparticles). Also, the ultimate strength tempered sample containing titanium oxide nanoparticles and titanium carbide nanoparticles compared to the no heat treatment sample (containing titanium oxide and titanium carbide nanoparticles) has been respectively decreased by 6% and 4%. The results show that the fatigue life in both tempered nano-alloy samples has been increased. The fatigue life in the tempered sample of titanium carbide nanoparticles has increased more than the fatigue life in titanium oxide nanoparticles. The fatigue test results show that in the tempered sample containing titanium carbide nanoparticles compared to the tempered sample containing titanium oxide nanoparticles, fatigue life (150-N force) has been increased by 30%. In this loading, the fatigue life (tempered sample containing titanium carbide nanoparticles compared to the no heat treatment sample) has been increased by 19%. The hole drilling strain gage results show that in the tempered sample containing titanium oxide nanoparticles and titanium carbide nanoparticles, hoop residual stresses have been respectively decreased by 48% and 45% compared to the no heat treatment sample (containing titanium oxide and titanium carbide nanoparticles).

In this research, the thermo-mechanical behavior of SWCNTs reinforced polymer has been characterized using an analytical method based on semi-continuum modeling. For this reason, a representative volume element of CNT reinforced polymer with cyclic symmetry boundary condition is used while the nanotube reinforcement is modeled in nanoscale and its surrounding polymer is considered as a continuum environment. Applying the cyclic symmetry boundary conditions in the problem-solving procedure causes satisfactory agreement between the results of the analytical method and the actual conditions. The interphase between the nanotube and polymer is also modeled using the cohesive stresses and the mechanical properties extracted from the Vander-Waals forces between the atoms of nanotube and polymer. In general, the thermal residual stresses in polymer/CNT nanocomposites can occur due to the significant differences between the thermal expansion coefficient of polymer and CNT. In the present paper, the semi-continuum modeling has been firstly explained and then the role of some effective parameters such as volume fraction, aspect ratio, and temperature change on the residual thermal stresses has been studied. Although, based on some available researches in macro scale, it seems that adding the CNTs to polymer leads to decreasing the thermal expansion of nanocomposite and consequently decreasing its thermal residual stresses. However, the results of this paper show that by inappropriate selection of some parameters such as the volume fraction and aspect ratio of nanotubes and also the temperature change, the residual thermal stresses increase between the polymer and nanotube which it can weaken the material strength.

In this research, the mechanical behavior of composites made with polyethylene matrix and wood powder reinforcement have been investigated. In order to improve the mechanical properties, the wood powder has been added to polyethylene at three levels of 30, 40 and 50 wt.%. The material was mixed using an internal mixer Haake and then the material was removed from the mixer and was granulated by a crushing machine. Finally, the granules were molded using an injection molding machine and tensile test specimens were made according to ASTM D638 standard and bending test specimens were made according to ASTM D790 standard. After preparing the specimens, a tensile and flexural test performed on them. The results of the mechanical tests show that the amount of elastic modulus increased with increasing the amount of wood powder so that the highest amount of elastic modulus was observed in the specimens containing 50 wt.% wood powder. Also, the highest strength in the tensile test was observed at the level of 30 wt.% of the wood weight and the highest flexural strength was in the 50% level of wood weight. Also, mechanical tests were simulated using Abaqus software.

Additive manufacturing in the modern world is progressing significantly, resulting in special applications in engineering sciences, medicine, and art. When the MIT university mixed the concept of time in the 3D printing process, time was considered as the fourth dimension. By combining the fourth dimension, the time, the smart materials made of additive manufacturing are able to a reaction to the external motivations (heat, voice, impact, etc) within a specified time. In the 4D printing process, the material configuration will be converted to a converter that will be exposed to external motivation such as heat, water, chemicals, electrical current and magnetic energy. It is expected that in the future, this technology will be widely used, requiring the application of various engineering disciplines, including mechanical engineering, in the fabrication and production of objects, because the overall perspective of the 4-D printing process is to make intelligent materials that are optimized using computational challenges and empirical knowledge. In this article, after reviewing the 3D printing and introducing smart materials, the issue of 4D printing has been investigated using this material. The mechanism, challenges, applications, and future of 4D printing has been discussed.

Metal Injection Molding (MIM) is a novel manufacturing technology, used for complex geometric parts at a high production rate. One of the most important parameters in this method is the selection of proper feedstock consisting of optimal powder loading and an optimized binder system. The defects, which appear during the injection process, cannot be removed in later process stages and this is for the reason that the rheological behavior of the feedstock needs to be checked to make sure that it has the required injection properties. In this study, a multi-component wax-based binder system has been selected in order to inject Fe-2Ni powder. For this reason, a multi-component wax-based binder system with different percentages of constituents was used to produce 11 feed modes containing 60% vol. % of the powder. Further, the viscosity and its variation with the shear rate for 11 developed samples have been measured. The results showed that the feedstock consisting of 66 vol. % Paraffin wax, 19 vol. % Polypropylene, 10 vol. % Carnauba wax and 5 vol. % Stearic Acid has the lowest viscosity and lowest sensitivity to the shear rate and this leads to the complete filling of the mold cavity and production of a healthy component for very complex geometries. After achieving the proper binder system, the critical powder loading for the binder system was measured by 58 vol. % using torque rheometer.

Shearography is a powerful optics method, which is capable of measuring derivatives of displacement, surface strains, and nondestructive testing. Time-average shearography and stroboscopic shearography have been developed for full-field vibration analysis. In this paper, the capability of time-average shearography and stroboscopic shearography for nondestructive testing has been compared using a proposed shearography configuration. In order to generate vibration, the proposed experimental system was equipped with a piezoelectric excitation mechanism. The time-average and stroboscopic shearography inspections were carried out by sweeping the excitation frequency of the piezoelectric. Stroboscopic shearography successfully detected the defect in the frequency ranges of 1300-1600, 6000-8000 Hz and 12600-13300 Hz, while time-average shearography detected the defect only in the frequency ranges of 6000-8000 Hz, and 12900-13100 Hz. The results of inspections of propylene specimen with a 10 mm circular hole indicated that stroboscopic shearography provides a more reliable assessment than time-average shearography. Compared to time-average shearography, stroboscopic shearography gives more clear fringes in the all frequency range. In addition, stroboscopic shearography could recognize the defect in wider frequency ranges.