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پیاپی 16 (پاییز و زمستان 1398)

Causation is one of the most important philosophical issues criticized by Hume's analysis and caused many philosophers to find solution and explanation. Lewis and J. L. Mackie, as analytic philosopher built the foundation of their theory upon the critique and modification of Hume's theory. The aim in this paper is to deal with, the issue and the authors attempt to present a comparative study by logical explanation on these approaches and introduce the "ambiguity in causation" as one of the most important factors of failure in these approaches. Although, according to Louis, as the authors hold, Hume's approach only implies sufficient causes and so is not comprehensive, Lewis's own approach only involves the necessary reasons, and therefore it envisages a charge of the same challenge. Finally, the authors explained the complex view of J. L. Mackie and accepts it as a more favorable view and also emphasizes that It is inevitable for scholars used of counterfactual conditions to obtain the necessary conditions., But in such cases it is necessary to define the type of causes.

The problem of divine knowledge with a subset of related issues, is one of the most difficult philosophical problems that sheikh al-Rais has been addressing and solving in its numerous works. The view of Avicenna, especially regarding the problem of divine knowledge, has been criticized and abused by many, and even charged with exaggeration by thinkers such as Ghazali. This paper seeks to refine the view of Avicenna in a reflection on the basis of the philosophical foundations of Avicenna. The most important basis for Avicenna is the metaphysical distinction between existence and quiddity. In this article, firstly, the design of the Sheikh's base and its difference with the Mu'tazilite view are discussed. Then, by examining his view of divine knowledge in the three stages of the knowledge of essence, the knowledge of other things and the knowledge of the details, the ultimate theory of the Sheikh with respect to his later works The most important of these is "Al-TALIQT". According to the final view, since God is the source, it is pure action and all things, its knowledge of itself and other things, as well as the details is the presential knowledge.

Probably the first thing that every scholar in Philosophy learns about Wittgenstein is the fact that he developed two approaches regarding language in during his life and philosophical thinking, and accordingly nobody hesitates to call him a philosopher of language (in the sense of being as a philosopher whose main concern is the analysis and exposition of language). But the fundamental necessity that made Wittgenstein to do inquiry about language has not been considered yet. The aim in present paper is to deal with this neglected issue in Wittgenstein` s though and the writes attempt to clarify that the ground of Wittgenstein’s questioning about language and also the origin of his special way of thinking is the fundamental experience of wonder on being and seeing the beings as miracles. Wittgenstein encounters the borders of language and experiences the linguistic character of human being (or his being-in-the-language) so that he can say: The existence of language is the language of existence. Our main sources for explanation of this experience will be “Notebooks”, “Tractatus” and “A Lecture on Ethics”.

The ontological analysis of concrete particulars deals with the relationship between concrete object and their attributes. Both Peter Simons' Nuclear Theory and Aristotelian Substance Theory may present an acceptable explanation for the following three problems:  Identity of Indiscernible, Excessive Necessitism and Change. In spite of the superiority of these two theories over the other theories, each has problems need to be addressed. Aristotelian theory does not seem to be very successful in showing that the spices (kinds) are unchangeable or at least does not explain it. Simmons's theory also returns to Aristotelian theory. While outlining the challenges to any theory, the final suggestion of the paper is that with inspiration of Simmons' theory and introducing a relation between the generalities (universal Whatness), create a modification in Aristotelian theory to overcome the challenge of the irreductive challenge of Species (kinds) Simons' theory, in some sense, collapses back to Aristotelian Theory.

Certainty, from the viewpoint of Mulla Sadra, is a dogmatic affirmation of a proposition corresponding to the reality; which is gained only by access to the sources and with the help of connecting to the angels and receiving the science and knowledge from them. But certainty, from Descartes's view, comes in different sense. According to him, the quality of clearness and distinction which is seen in mathematical and geometric numbers can be seen in real life. And with the same kind and degree of certainty, Descartes prove the existence of mind, God and finally the existence of corporal world. In the theology of both thinkers, God plays a central role to support the certainty. Mulla Sadra, with the existential attitude regarding the certainty, saved Cartesian certainty from pure rationalist deadlock and with the help of existential gradation of mind and its activity and creativity held the cooperation or interaction between intellectual knowledge and intuitive knowledge, and reaches the ultimate degree of certainty to knowledge by presence and intuitive knowledge.  The present paper deals with the issue of certainty with the aspects of similarity and the dissimilarities between the fundamentals and the principles of definitive discussion in the course of the thought of these two philosophers.

This study seeks to examine the mystical view of Haji on how the multiplicity have been emanated from one unfolded being. By “al-fayd• al-aqdas,” the Sacred Effusion, the mystics mean the cognitive manifestation of things without any multiplicity in divine knowledge and by the holly emanation they mean objectifying the objective unmoved being that exist only in divine knowledge. Haji believes that the essence, the nouns and the attributes appear at Ahadiyat level (non – numerical oneness) but at Vahediyat level (numerical oneness) they are distinct. He identified the name as a noun plus an adjective, and the mystics believe that divine names are effective in generating plurality through co-operation, and contradiction. In addition, we can explain how multiplicity has been emanated from divine names through the Leading names (al- Ahematol asmah) and their adjunct and the principles of names and  their persons, on the basis of intuitive method of truth seeker.

The issue of stress or psychological pressure is one of the major issues in the present century and the impacts of environmental - physical spaces, as an effective factor, external to the individuals on stress, is irrefutable. Stress in educational spaces is also an issue of great importance. The aim of this research is to study the viewpoints of experts on the factors affecting the reduction of stress in users of educational spaces, and to investigate the factors involved in the architecture of Iranian-Islamic schools. The method adapted in this research is a quantitative-qualitative study using Delphi technique. The results display that there are five main factors as effective factors in reducing stress and the philosophy of eternal relaxation in educational structure. These factors include: Placement of educational space; Management system in creating people's welfare spaces; Space vitality in interpersonal interactions; the community environment and neighbors in the sense of security; and the communal spaces in the communication of users in educational spaces. Therefore, comparative research and analysis on the examples of Iranian-Islamic schools have been conducted on the basis of extracted factors.

Explaining the quality of God’s knowledge with respect to beings according to Ibn Sina and the role played by hypothetical syllogism in it is the focus of the present writing. This research is conducted through descriptive - analytic method and the goal is reached by applying some semantic rule. Applying the hypothetical syllogism in the semantics of Divine knowledge, may reach to the conclusion that the well-known understanding of Ibn Sina’s theory is not right; rather, Ibn Sina is one of those who consider God’s knowledge with respect to beings as knowledge by presence; and, for this reason, he may be deemed as the first among philosophers who has demonstrated God’s knowledge regarding being as knowledge by presence. This new revision about Avicenna`s view regarding Divine knowledge with respect to beings, teleological agency would be understood and its consistency with Ibn Sina’s philosophical principles would be clearly seen. In his books, he defines divine grace as being the wise, self -lover and benevolence and the emanation of good from God is considered as the result of such grace. The emission of the world by God does not cause any change in God`s essence as its emanation is not based on any divine intention beyond or external to His essence.

There is no doubt that, the first ontological cornerstone for Transcendent philosophy is seen in the "principality of Existence", according to which  nothing is considered as real in the realm of existence except the being itself, and “existence” is not realized in the mind, because it is the simple and unfolded reality whose mode of being is the refusal of “nothingness” and being the primary source of acts or effects, and the true knowledge of existence is possible only through knowledge by presence and intuition.The question that arises here is that how beings can be perceived by presence or acquired knowledge and to what extent can such a knowledge lead us truly to knowledge? The aim of this research is to deal with this question. The concise answer is that, it is possible, to some extent, to gain knowledge of external beings by "Secondary intelligible" and "essential concepts", along with to "knowledge by presence" with all its kinds. For such concepts are abstracted from external beings and their comparison, and for the sake of this relationship, they are reflecting their own objects. In addition to "knowledge by presence" and "acquired knowledge", we also encounter creatures through senses and through this we know them. Therefore, there are various forms of knowledge of beings, and the knowledge of mankind is open to beings. However, it is worthy to note that knowing take place in a certain framework and conditions.

"concomitance" in the custom means "physical accompaniment"; but the divine concomitance in the following verse "…and He is with you wherever you are"(57:4) cannot be as same as  human concomitance with other objects. Before Mulla Sadra, the commentators considered the Quranic term مع"with" as equivocal term. They have numerous justifications for the meaning of the “concomitance”. But Mulla Sadra by designing the "Self-Subsisting Concomitance", open a new in philosophy. Sadra's philosophical-mystical worldview, with his interpretive method (separation of concept from instance), implies the content participation. Hence, the core of the semantic meaning of the term is "absolute companion" which is found in different ways. Of course, criticisms have been made on interpreting the term Concomitance to "Self-Subsisting Concomitance", such as "incompatibility with the meaning of the verse" and "imposition of mystical presuppositions". The theory not only can solve the incompatibility of the apparent meaning of the verse with theistic principles, but also, it is capable to provide a system of meaning to explain different aspects of divine concomitance.

The philosophy of society is a science which studies and investigates general issues of society through logical and rational methods. And, in addition, while discussing by asking about the existence, nature and the quality of society, it attempts to discover its truth, aiming at extracting general regulations which ease the path toward prosperity for individuals and the whole society. The present study tries to study the issue of the principality of individual and society through the method of content analysis and focusing on the works of Allameh Tabatabai, and attempts to explore the relationship between them and the effects of his view on the aforementioned issues as the ontological foundations of the society. Findings show that Allameh Tabatabai, in the dichotomy of personality and society, first and foremost, build authenticity on individual or personhood and at second put the credibility on society. On this basis, it is possible to determine the effects and mutual impacts regarding individual and society. Exploiting such social characteristics is an important basis in sociological studies and has played a significant role in shaping the social views of Allamah Tabatabai.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the viewpoints of fourth grade students on the knowledge of God and the universe based on the ontological principles embodied in the theoretical foundations of the Fundamental Transformation Document (inspired by Mulla Sadra's theory); and   reviewing the textbook of divine gifts book for second-to-fourth-grade, in term of convergence between these foundations as well. The statistical population includes the book Theoretical Foundations of Fundamental Transformation, 2011, the second to fourth grade divinely gift books and among the fourth grade female students in the Tehran 20 district, 25 were randomly selected from non-profit and public schools. The research method is qualitative using phenomenological and contextual analysis. Content analysis was used to extract Hawking component from themes analysis and Shannon entropy method was used for content analysis data. The results disclosed that there is a consensus among students about the ontology and components of this part of the fundamental transformation document. The Shannon entropy coefficient also showed that familiarity with the attributes of God by 55 hundred, how to relate to God by 24 and referring to the blessings of God by 20 hundred, respectively, was the most important and least important in the heavenly gift books, which requires further investigation for a strong connection. Between the innumerable attributes of God and the blessings associated with these attributes, it is central to the objectivist perspective of thinking and reasoning to provide the ground for the cultivation of childhood creativity.