نشریه نامه معماری و شهرسازی
سال دوازدهم شماره 25 (زمستان 1398)

Understanding two-dimensional drawings of muqarnas and three-dimensional constructing of it, is a controversial issue among historians and architects. Remaining documents from the past about muqarnas is limited to two-dimensional drawings and constructed samples, while the documents that show how three dimensional muqarnas is constructed based on two dimensional drawings are insignificanr. Hossein Lorzadeh (1906-2004) is one of the last architects who have studied the techniques of making muqarnas based on master-student system, and has explained it in his written works. The purpose of this paper is to explain the Lorzadeh’s method for three-dimensional construction of muqarnas and tries to reproduce muqarnas computer graphics based on his oral works and teachings. Due to numerous differences between the viewpoints of Lorzadeh and those of other academic researchers of muqarnas, review of literature of muqarnas research and comparing it with Lorzadeh's teachings is vital. This can show us the origins of many mistakes (i.e. misunderstandings) in constructing of muqarnas. Most of technical terms used in muqarnas construction and two-dimensional design are used in a wrong way; that is why other applications which follow cannot be correct and reliable. In order to show such misunderstandings, in this paper Lorzadeh's principles in the field of muqarnas have been derived from different sources in the first place, and then these principles have been compared with the principles which can be found in academic sources. Through such a critical reading, the paper shows the differences among the viewpoints of Lorzadeh and those of other academic researchers, which can be considered as the origin of misunderstanding in this field. The research method of this paper desk research as well as conducting interviews with the students of Lorzadeh. Moreover the main concepts of muqarnas are summarized according to the views of Lorzadeh as well as his major ideas on muqarnas through qualitative research method. To update the two-dimensional and three-dimensional computer drawing method, AutoCAD and CorelDraw software packages have been used, and by means of a sample, the application of Lorzadeh's ideas have been shown in practice. During the three-dimensional construction process, the rules and results have been derived from Lorzadeh's ideas on three-dimensionality, which can solve the problems found in other plans and researches. These results are as follows: (1) height of "qatar" which is important in final proportions of muqarnas and depends on designer's experience in the field of muqarnas, (2) “background" is an important part of design that has been ignored in much research. This mistake makes final muqarnas abstract from background, and thus cannot create an artistic harmony between them, (3) two-dimensional drawing, which is the first thing at hand while encountering a construction problem of muqarnas, and finally, (4) transmission of lines in “nimkar” muqarnas, relative limits of choices and discretion of the architect. This final part is important in order to make a harmony between background and muqarnas, and designer and constructor ought to assist each other to make artistic muqarnas.

Nowadays, the remains of the past have become more and more valuable among nations and many projects concerning protection, conservation, restoration, and dissemination of cultural heritage are being carried out around the world due to its growing appeal as a driving force of socio-economic development. Uncertainty over time, cost, and scope can be seen as common and distinctive features of these projects that pose some challenges. One of the most recent responses to these challenges is the implementation of building information modeling (BIM) in the context of cultural heritage that is referred to as H-BIM (Heritage-BIM). The Building Information Modeling (BIM) is an expansive knowledge domain within the Architecture, Engineering, Construction and Operations (AECO) industry, representing the physical and functional characteristics of buildings in digital form with the help of a set of technologies, processes and policies, and by facilitating collaborations and data sharing, reducing errors resulting from inconsistencies. In these scenarios the design process is no more carried out using two-dimensional (2D) tools, but it is based on three-dimensional (3D) elements which are coupled with metadata and additional information. By this way, the new era of designing is based on a 3D model with a 3D database. Heritage Building Information Modelling is an emerging knowledge area used for documentation and management of existing historic buildings. By implementing this concept in the cultural heritage projects, not only the current status of the heritage building can be shown, but it is also possible to view and analyze the proposed restoration plans and possible interventions in different scenarios and all the decisions will be made based on reliable information. It should be noted that the reliability of information in projects in the field of cultural heritage is important because no change can be reversed in the historical buildings. In contrast to the maturity of implementing Building Information Modelling in the field of construction, the benefits and process of implementation in the field of cultural heritage is a novel and challenging issue that is called Heritage Building Information Modelling (H-BIM) and in recent years, it has become a major topic for research. This paper, considering Heritage Building Information Modelling as a technological innovation, seeks to study the feasibility and to identify the factors influencing its implementation in the context of restoration projects of the historical buildings of Tehran. In terms of purpose, this research is an applied research and is considered as a mixed research using a set of qualitative and quantitative data. Three types of desk study, semi-structured interview and questionnaire were used to collect data. The results of the statistical analysis of the conceptual model presented in this paper show that the components of the three main groups of innovative characteristics of Heritage Building Information Modelling (relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability, trial ability), environmental factors (competition pressure) and individual characteristics of the project team (resistance to change and risk tolerance) have different degrees of impact. Based on the Friedman ranking test the complexity of implementation has the greatest impact and compatibility has the least impact.

The prevalence of non-spatial approaches and physical determinism in the management of spatial changes and solving urban problems in the Tehran Metropolitan has led to a situation in which urban plans such as Tehran’s Master Plan (2007) and the 22 District plans of Tehran metropolitan (2012) have been less than successful in fulfilling expectations regarding the urban spatial system and uncertainties affecting such systems. Dealing with urban problems and uncertainties affecting strategic decision-making including those associated with the planning environment, the guiding values of the planning process, and finally those associated with the decisions made by other stakeholders through strategic spatial planning in an era characterized by an accumulation of knowledge and information, would require knowledge management. Urban Planning problems due to spatial and political nature of planning will not fit into traditional information systems. This fact shifts the emphasis and application of information systems and “knowledge-management” in urban planning from a mere technical to a broader context suitable for the rationale of a strategic spatial planning. Knowledge-management as a set of procedures, infrastructures, technical and managerial tools is a designed process towards creating, sharing and leveraging information and knowledge within and around organizations. The absence of an urban knowledge management system has increased the dynamism and complexity of urban problems. In fact, creation of such a system as an important component of the efficiency of any urban planning system has been largely overlooked in both planning research and practice. This paper is an attempt to answer two basic questions: first, what challenges does Tehran’s urban planning system face from the perspective of a knowledge-based strategic spatial planning system based on the principles of knowledge management? And second, what is the appropriate management model to be applied in Tehran’s urban planning system? Dealing with these two questions will help us achieve the main purpose of this paper: enhancing Tehran’s urban planning system through application of the principles of strategic spatial planning and knowledge management (knowledge-based strategic spatial planning). To this end, a qualitative research approach based on a two-stage descriptive-analytic and analytic-prescriptive process has been adopted. Systematic review of the research literature constitutes the first stage of this methodology. The second stage deals with "progressive abstraction problem-finding", focus group method, content analysis and the “conceptual suitability”. Our findings indicate that knowledge management enhances the efficiency of Tehran’s urban planning system in the framework of the strategic spatial planning approach through the generation and application of all types of knowledge, providing the context for learning from knowledge, creating a flexible knowledge base, promoting knowledge exchange, raising public awareness and the promotion of a knowledge application culture. However, the absence of belief in knowledge management and strategic thinking within the formal institutional structures (such as the legal system, governance and organizations) and informal institutions (such as culture, history and public beliefs) constitutes the main challenge facing Tehran’s urban planning system.

In recent years, a significant number of urban design projects have been developed for the public spaces in Tehran aimed to create the optimal "quality" in urban environments. Despite the utilization of the urban design approach in the procurement process, lack of quality and non-realization (implementation) of these projects are considered as challenges of the urban management. The present study seeks to identify the obstacles to the realization of an optimal urban design by utilizing the experiences of Tehran municipality managers in the decision-making process of urban design projects. The method of this research is qualitative, based on "grounded theory" in data analysis, and theorizing. The study data were collected using semi-structured interviews with 25 managers of urbanism and architecture departments and technical managers of the consulting engineers. Sampling was continued until the theoretical saturation. For data collection, we have also used the written sources of projects implemented in recent years of the municipality of Tehran. The results of this study show that managers in the decision-making process have experienced lack of a durable and recognizable management strategy for preparation of urban design projects. This will lead to the unresolved urban problems, loss of the quality of the urban environment, social dissatisfaction, loss of spent financial resources, weakening power of consulting engineers, and expansion of non-transparent power relations between beneficiaries and stakeholders' groups. It seems that institutionalizing the urban design can respond to this challenge. Summarizing the opinion of the interviewees on their experience of decision-making of urban design projects shows that lack of a durable management strategy has been considered as the most challenging issue for urban design projects in Iran, and has seriously damaged project realization. One of the mechanisms for responding to this challenge is to use "new institutional theory" in order to institutionalize urban design knowledge at the level of public and governmental organizations meeting. In this case, urban design is demanded as a social behavior and obvious act in the body of society and at various public, private and governmental levels, seeking to promote the quality of the environment. Formation of its urban design institution as the controller and determiner of the behaviors of various actors can pave the way for higher realizing of urban design. This can be achieved through definition of social entity of urban design at the knowledge level, attitudes and learning to be with people, being process-focused, and ultimately conversion to behavior and norm at the level of public, private and governmental institutions. Moreover, considering the findings of this study, as the result of the interaction of the consequences of lack of a management strategy and lack of a place of urban design in the institutional approach, the actions carried out in the form of urban design projects in Iran can only operate at the level of informal expression of the design governance toolkit. Thus, it has not yet been as official tools in urban planning and urban management system.

Rapid unplanned urban sprawling has crated incoherent form of structures in urban neighborhoods. Creating physical-spatial balance, which has a great influence on the visual image of the city, needs a comprehensive perception of the context to intervene based on that. "Darb-e-Babataher" neighborhood located in the historic core of Khorramabad, adjacent to historical monuments such as Falak-ol-Aflak Castle, ancient bazar and many other cultural heritage sites, suffers from losing its valuable historical qualities, which is mainly caused by lack of form-morphological considerations in the urban context. This neighborhood have faced with some historical texture issues such as being fine-grained, compactness, lack of legibility and impermeability. Form-morphological studies are of great help to overcome these problems and depict a brighter future for urban designers and planners to implement urban plans. This research aims at a comprehensive analysis of urban form-morphology, seeking a conceptual-analytical model based on the later theories by the thinkers in two fields: urban form and "urban morphology, which provide a basis for comprehensive evaluation of the potentials of the studied case. The thinkers that are mentioned in "urban form" field include Lynch (1958, 1981), Conzen (1960), Leslie (1972), Handy (1996), Moudon (1997), Maller (1998), Cuthbert & Anderson (2002), Bramely, Glen & Karryn (2005), Alberti (2005), Thomas (2011), Oliveira (2016), Kropf (1993, 1996, 2017); meanwhile in "urban morphology" field they include: Conzen (1960), Levy (1999), Moudon (1998), Dovey and Ristic (2016), Pafka and Dovey (2017), Kropf (1996, 2017), and Oliveira (2018). This analytical model presents two dimensions and seven components as well as ten analytical indexes, which are recognized based on the coincidence of the components. These Ten indexes include: orientation and pattern of building establishment, proportion and area of the lots, segment relative to the main street, ground space of lots, floor space index, open space ratio, layers or building height, permeability, the degree of integration and the relationship of the nodes and the network of public spaces. This research is a practical survey according to its purpose, and the method of the research is a mixed one (both quantitative and qualitative). Qualitative method has been used with content analysis technique and the quantitative method is based on Agraph and Spacemate techniques. So, after clear definition of the concepts of "urban form" and "urban morphology", their dimensions, components, ten indicators are identified. Finally, after identifying analytical techniques and evaluating the indexes, these results are achieved: the neighborhood consist of compact low-rise blocks which has various built areas, few open spaces and interconnected fabric; undesirable connection of the urban spaces has caused impermeable and low value of spatial integration of the urban fabric. So "Darb-e-Babataher" neighborhood can be divided into four morphological regions, which have the special characters with the same results in evaluating Indexes. In each morphological region, implication polices are suggested such as: preserving historical species in lots, buildings and urban space, renovation of buildings, considering a regulation that limits the building density in the historical zones, widening streets with respect to original structure of texture, improvement and enhancing public land use as the important motivation development factor in achieving facilities and amenities in public places for inhabitants and tourists.

Urban plans, especially in the central and old textures of cities, have a considerable complexity and expansive scope of interests of groups and stakeholders. For this reason, there is a need for a balance between sometimes conflicting objectives and interests of stakeholders in urban projects. In the event of disagreement, mediation between the beneficiary groups can, in turn, alter the attitudes of the parties to the disputed issues that have arisen, and so they will be able to find common ground and solutions. One of the important urban projects which has been performed in Tehran in the recent decade is turning the 17-Shahrivar Street into a pedestrian way. This street is one of the central axes of Tehran, which has relatively important traffic and functional role. Execution of this project led to lots of debates among pros and cons; particularly, there were three major groups involved with this project: urban managers who want to make a cultural axis to hold religious ceremonies in especial days per year, shop owners around the street (mainly car exhibitions) and households (residents). These three groups had different concerns and interests. The conflict in the project began from the beginning of the project in 2012, when the residents believed that the project was poorly informed, they were not consulted or received a proposal. On the other hand, at the managerial level, some officials of urban organizations and members of the city council disagreed with the project, because of the weakness of the previous studies, lack of coordination, lack of transparency and disapproval by the city council. City council members, with information about the area, took a decision to provide the municipality with a two-month period in March 2015 to provide the solution, which did not lead to a conclusion. Until the end of the year, the City Council, reopened a major part of the route, but even yet, there are still cases of dissatisfaction among the beneficiaries. The current research, which forms part of the pre-mediation stage, uses a descriptive-analytical method based on the content-based analysis and database theory approach. In this paper, after identifying the disputes and the main beneficiary groups of the 17-Shahrivar Street of Tehran, forty-five interviews were carried out, and information was encoded based on the content analysis method. The findings of the research show that there are more challenges and barriers to the existing facilities for resolving the disputes in the 17-Shahrivar route. Although the parties agree on issues of prioritization and ambition for the mediation process. However, there are challenges such as lack of proper relationships and trust among the parties to the dispute, the severity of high dissatisfaction especially by the business community and the problems of the Tehran city administration system, such as lack of proper accountability, lack of coordinated management, top to bottom command-line management, and insufficient funding has made the process difficult to resolve.