نشریه تمدن حقوقی
پیاپی 5 (زمستان 1398)

The Responsibility of States for internationally is the result of an infringing act and a breach of international obligations. In this regard, Investigate the 2001 Act Approach It is important and has a high international status from the point of view of rules, non-compliance with treaties, international laws and norms. Scrutiny in Responsibility of States for internationally, In fact, it is because of the international system's framework for violating legal norms and treaties that do not follow governments and there is also an emphasis on the effectiveness of citations to the Responsibility of States for internationally arising from the breach of obligations Erga Omnes. Including points of reliance on Responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts (2001), Exemption of liability from any comment and exception and Absolute enumeration of responsibility according to Due Diligences.  This structural order of the international system originated from the supremacy of Erga Omnes and jus cogens over convergent performance in the global arena. This is the result of the convergence of international rules in the path of development and conflict of international law and the highway of international responsibility of states. Therefore, this research is based on the development of scientific past research. There is another version of the transformational approach to the regulation of international responsibility and to answer the question, how is it possible for governments to act and respond to the international responsibility for violating legal norms and treaties resulting from non-compliance? This study assumes that Responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, without any restrictions, has a legal framework for violating the obligations of the response and that there is no compromise between them. In order to prove its hypothesis, this study deals with the evolution of Responsibility of States for internationally and the regime of responsibility and its legal and normative effects.

Bitcoin is an electronic innovation similar to non-backed money (fiat money) and is set to not be managed by any bank or institution and in some ways is considered a digital payment. Therefore, this virtual currency operates on a network called Blockchain. In other words, Blockchain is an infrastructure similar to a ledger based on which Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies operate. Bitcoin is not produced and published by a specific group or website, and only a group of users have been generating and releasing Bitcoin by its extraction process which is called mining, or this mysterious digital currency has been converted using digital exchanges and used in the trades of individuals. Nevertheless, in this paper, we will discuss the legitimacy or non-legitimacy of digital currencies through the legal concept of the Blockchain and digital currencies. According to Article 10 of the Civil Code and Article 2 of the e-commerce law, these transactions are entirely correct and lawful. However, according to some jurists, buying and selling Bitcoin, as a major example of digital currency, is a subject of concern.

Investigating the factors affecting the length of the proceedings and judicial development Field and statistical research on Kermanshah court in 2018 Procrastination can be called one of the oldest problems of the Iranian judiciary. And a comprehensive plan to resolve the delay in the trial has been adopted to reduce it, but the people and even the body of this huge body are still involved in this old dilemma. The present article has been prepared and written as a case study in Kermanshah in 2018 with the aim of examining the factors affecting the reduction and elimination of judicial delay and judicial development. According to the findings of the present article, ranking the factors affecting the reduction and elimination of procedural delays in the case study are the qualitative development of human resources, reform of procedural processes, amendment of rules and regulations, amendment and creation of complementary institutions and quantitative development of force human.

The focus of criminology on crimes and harms committed by and against humans has broadened over time. Only since the 1990s, however, has the discipline recognized the significance of crimes and harms concerning the environment and nonhuman animals. A variety of approaches and bodies of work now contribute to what can be described as green criminology. This article summarizes research on types of environmental crime and harm, as well as different eco‐philosophical orientations and related justice‐based approaches. It concludes with an example illustrating the ways in which these approaches may overlap.

Rehabilitation and treatment of punishments have changed in the process of retributive justice developments. An examination of the history of retributive justice suggests that this function was once considered by corporal policymakers through corporal punishment, then in prison, and finally through community-oriented punishment. The transformation in penalties from the preventive theory of punishments to community-centered measures has created a paradigm shift in the rehabilitation of offenders. So that the correction of criminals has been achieved in a more just and desirable way. The present article examines this issue and concludes that the judges' use of the institutions provided in the Islamic Penal Code adopted in 2013, including alternative punishments to imprisonment, the institution of postponing the issuance of sentences and the institution of exemption from punishment by judges can guide Iran's criminal policy in this regard to a new level while avoiding the adverse effects of rehabilitating criminals in a closed environment (prison).

One of the issues which has always been so controversial among the commentators of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods is the transaction of software. In the trading custom of the present era, software transactions can be implemented through a set of methods or templates. Sometimes they are transferred by a hardware or a tangible media (e.g. Disks, CDs) and sometimes transactions are online or in-app. Furthermore, it is possible that software is made and produced by an order and then transferred to the customer. These transactions according to the Article (1) and (100) of the convention have been a matter of controversy among the commentators; because in different legal systems, it is not clear that they are considered as contracts for sale or goods and despite stipulation of Article (3) there are still many disputes regarding the definition and the limits of these transactions in the context of the convention. This is a descriptive-analytical research to solve this issue and has concluded that it is necessary to hang on to an interpretation which complies with the international character of the convention and the general principles of it (Art.7). It is presented in the conclusion that it is required not to abrogate the unique legal system of international trade in the light of this convention, just to expand its scope; and the exclusion of some kinds of software transactions from the scope of the convention is more suitable if it is to keep the international character and the purpose of the convention.