نشریه هستی و شناخت (نامه مفید)
سال ششم شماره 1 (پیاپی 11، بهار و تابستان 1398)

Factionalists claimed that the mental states must be defined through specific functional roles that they play in explaining the behavior of organism in different positions. Fodor the contemporary American philosopher believes in some sort of functionalism which is known as psycho- functionalism. He also believes in intentional realism with respect to mental states and a form of non-reduction physicalism. He creates a hypothesis called the language of thought, which is a combination of realistic reading of mental state and computational explanation of the process of reasoning that both are based on aforementioned beliefs, in order to provide a physicalistic response for the old ambiguities of the philosophy of mind. According to this hypothesis, thinking and reasoning occur in one mental language. The mental language has syntax and semantic and reasoning includes a syntax process on mental representations. The main aims of this study firstly is to provide the theoretical explanation of this hypothesis as well as explaining the most important features of the language of thought and secondly to provide a critical study of that hypothesis by the means of examining the arguments posed against or in favor of that hypothesis.

The role and importance of natural language in philosophy is clearly significant and obvious. Aristotle for systematizing his logic and formalizing its rules was significantly dependent on ordinary language such that he formulated the rules of his logic in the framework of this language. By criticizing Aristotle’s logic on the basis of incompetence and limitations of natural language, Frege developed a new philosophical system by introducing a formal language and a new system of logic. Of course these modifications did not end with Frege and continued in later philosophical systems. In this paper, firstly, we consider natural language and it’s influence on Aristotle’s logic and the problems of its application in ancient logic. Then some of Frege’s innovations in formal language and logic will be discussed. After that, we will examine Frege’s linguistic turn, its turning point, nature and conditions. Finally the effects of formal language in establishing the structure of Frege’s philosophical system will be considered.

The basis of Spinoza''s philosophical views is the single substance. Explanation of multiple beings is possible only by referring to the infinite substance, which Spinoza called "God or nature." According to Spinoza, finite objects are necessarily the result of infinite substance, and the whole of the non-divine universe is called the state, which is created by the eternal necessity of the substance of the single substance. By analyzing the substance, Spinoza concludes that there is only one substance that is infinite in terms of adjective and primordial. According to him, the infinite divine substance is indivisible and unique; everything that exists is in God; There can be no substance other than God or imagined. In this paper, content analysis proves that in Spinoza''s view, God, man, and the material world are all components of a substance, and that everything, material or spiritual, is the dimension or extension of God, and that the substance or God is infinite exist and His substance must include all beings and all realities. This is the worst kind of unity of existence in the Christian age that Spinoza states. He did not stop there but went a step further and by denying the end, the ultimate goal, will, and intellect of God to abandon the traditional concept or meaning of God in Christian thought. Spinoza''s solution to the problem of how God''s omnipotence and omniscience are compatible with human freedom is also unsatisfactory, even in his own way.

Among the various arguments which have been presented to prove the existence of God, argument from the order in the universe is unique from many respects. On the one hand, the vast majority of religious believers cite the same argument and on the other hand, religious Scriptures, especially Islamic texts have repeatedly raised this argument and have invited people to pay attention to it. The theologian cannot deal with this argument, like other arguments. He can pass along any argument and refuse it, but if he does not accept argument from the order in the universe, first he must find an alternative argument to offer to the masses, and secondly, he must defend religious Scriptures why such texts have presented a flawed argument and indeed the people have been deceived. The strange point is that though the Islamic scriptures have paid much more attention to this argument in comparison with Christian texts, but Christian scholars and theologians more than Muslim scholars have considered this argument and defended it.

It is important to explain the concept of Aristotelian matter. First, since Aristotle appears to be the first philosopher to use the term Hule in its philosophical sense, and through Aristotle, this concept has been incorporated into philosophy. Secondly, the concept of prime matter is challenged because prime matter, according to Aristotle, has no determining. The concept of matter in general in Aristotle's philosophy, like the concept of the form, seems to be a philosophical one, which we must consider as the secondary intelligibles. Aristotelian material takes precedence over any external physical matter. So is Aristotle's translation of matter into physical matter not a confusion? This article explains these important issues that play an important role in understanding the concept of matter. It seems that some of the challenges raised in the new period around Aristotle's prime matter are not paying attention to the fact that Aristotle's hule is of the philosophical concpets of secondary intelligibles, not an external physical object.

Environmental crisis is due to the welfare of humans and the negligence of other living organisms in the use of natural resources. Because of the ethics more than other schemes of protecting the environment can lead to require humans to leave bad behavior towards the environment, for resolve of this crisis, we need to attend to the ethics of the environment seriously, because it provides us with a set of personal and social criteria that are essential for establishing relationship between humans and their environment. In twentieth-century, thinkers in the field of environmental ethics generate “anthropocentric”, “biocentric” and “ecocentric” theories. Among these theories, biocentric theories, in particular the theory of “respect for nature”, are in an acceptable level of rationality. In this research, we will formulate this theory, then we will prove that this theory is reasonable in field of environmental ethics. Finally, we will respond to criticisms of this theory.

Most Muslim philosophers, following Aristotle, believe that the body consists of two essential elements called “prime matter” and “corporal form”. They have presented several arguments to prove this theory. One of these arguments is the “argument of faculty and action”, which according to two kinds of faculty and act, prove body is composed of matter and form. Many of them believe this argument is the strongest argument proving the prime matter, which is more accurate and more powerful than “argument of separation and connection”. But a few of philosophers believe this argument has a lot of problems. In this paper, we first explain the argument of faculty and action on separate its premises. Then we criticize it by counting the four problems. Finally, we conclude that the argument fails to prove the composition of the body, of matter and form. Key words: Argument of faculty and action- prime matter- corporal form- soul.

N. Wolterstorff in his book (Divine Discourse: Philosophical Reflections on the Claim that God Speaks. Cambridge University Press 1995 ) ,presents new approach about God`s nature of revelation as Divine Discourse. Using Speech acts theory he claims that beyond of revelation, God discourses with human .He uses the word (discourse) in the Literally meaning than metaphorical. His main claim about nature of revelation is that God Instead of revelating operates speech act but He doesn't use words and physical apparatus. So when we say that God speaks, in the exact meaning He uses illocutionary act. Revelation as Gods illocutionary act requires accepting some presuppositions, Principles and specific ontological and epistemological repercussions . This essay at first tries to clarify linguistic origin of Speech act theory and its basic elements based on Austin`s speech act theory. Then tries to reflect on the use of this theory in N.W 's approach on Revelation.

In all eras, the Heidegger has a special attention to language and technology issues.In this paper, it has been shown that the type of withdrawal and the use of these two categories is the capacity of the two currencies to consider.For this purpose, first the language ratio is discussed with the thought and existence, then the difference between the traditional language and the technological language and the correct manner of conduct with technology is expressed in the perspective of Heidegger.In his opinion, the natural language and the traditional language said yes that the history and the original is the ordained issue.It is a lasting language and protects language possibilities.In contrast, the language of the same technology is a logical language, caught in exactly and under the dictatorship of the general and Natural sciences, the task is to provide signs.At the same time, the look of the Heidegger is a sign that will be dealt with in the article

Although the explanations of beauty (Jamal) in the theory of Avesina are limited, it seems that they point to a very deep relation between beauty (Jamal) and perfection (Kamal). Therefore, perfection in the idea of some investigators has been expressed as the main reason for the beauty. They have introduced the second perfection in the sense objects as the beauty. They construe sense objects from the one of important phrase of Avesina, while it seems that proving this claim from that phrase is not easy and acceptable. For this reason, in this paper, while the common approaches of this issues are critiqued, by the descriptive-analytical method the relationship between beauty (Jamal) and perfection (Kamal) base of Avesina's books is evaluated and analyzed. The conclusion of this paper shows that base on the concept of perfection (Kamal) for creatures, there are two kind of beauty; one of them appertain to substantial beings and other to insubstantial beings. The perfection for the first part is the second perfection (Second Kamal) and for insubstantial beings is the first perfection (first Kamal).

Main issue in Heideger philosophy is existence .in his theory, exestionology (ontology)after platoon and Aristotle has been forgotten and replace with epistemology. Inattention or having no regard to truth meaning of existence and paying attention or focusing on existent(extant, creature) and its essence has raise uncomfortable feeling in Heidegger, and made hem to construct its philosophical axes on existionology and employing mush effort to going beyond the perception of existence and reaching to the subjective and adjunctive meaning. Hidiger to fulfillment of this purpose was looking for a way or solution to cognition of existence. So he focus his attention on humanity(human being) because , from his points of views , human being is only creature that is of ability of question about existence and is only visibility(creature) who made other visible (creatures) meaningful. in this line with, Heidegger start his existionology with existentialanalys is of human and his going to illustrate existential specifications and statesof human. so requisite of this cogitation of existence is existential analysis that guider to hermeneutic. From Heidegger opinion, Phenomenology is way of return to existence and he regard or look hermeneutic as existential aspect of human and a method for ontology problem. Since exestionology (ontology)must be looking for finding of existence by hermeneutic phenomenology of human being, so we find the depending of existionology.

The aim of this article is to clarify the acts of imagination based on Kant`s first and Third Critique with regard to his pre-critique work.We consider these acts with a concentration on formative power, synthesis, and schematism, the sublime and symbolism. With analytic content analysis, we claim that Deleuze focuses on Kantian acts of imagination and attributes them to the acts of beings in the world.In Kantian synthesis like apprehension, reproduction and recognition there is logical order which is not related to pure time. they make perception complete.But the sublime disrupts the synthesis. It changes the capacity and criteria of measurement of perception. Through the schema, there is a synthetic act between two heterogeneous series like conceptual and Spatio-temporal determinations, based on the rule of production of the images for concepts. Symbolism leads schematism to the dead-end of cognition.It changes the capacity of cognition.Deleuze's first temporal synthesis in Difference and Repetition is living present and to some extent corresponds to the Kantian synthesis of apprehension. The second synthesis, that is pure past corresponds to the schema.The instants of the genesis of pure time happen in the third Deleuzian temporal synthesis with two disruptions in accordance with the sublime and symbolism Deleuze transfers Kant`s acts of imagination like formation, synthesis, schematism, production, and genesis to acts of beings in the world.