نشریه مطالعات معماری ایران
سال نهم شماره 17 (بهار و تابستان 1399)

Historical Tabriz holds a rich architectural and urban legacy from the time it was the political capital of Ilkhanid, Turkmen Qoyunlu, and Safavid powers, of which only traces remain today over the course of historical events. The Saheb-abad square and complex which was among the earliest examples of urban open spaces of Iran dates back to the Mogul Ilkhanid era, of which only some deteriorated buildings remain and an altered name (Saheb al-Amr). Therefore, it is important to research the historical background and glory of this complex in order to preserve its past identity and improve historical continuity. In order to find answers to the research question which is about the physical and functional structures of the Saheb-abad square and complex from the very beginning of its creation (Ilkhanid period) to the height of its glory (Safavid period), the developments of this complex were studied and analyzed step by step using historical texts and sources such as written and illustrated documents. The content analysis research method was used with an interpretive-historical strategy. The results indicate a step-by-step design (not a predetermined design) affected by political/governmental forces (choosing Tabriz as the capital) at the early stages, and by natural events and historical wars through the rest of its history. The height of its physical and functional grandeur was during the reign of the Safavid monarch Shah Tahmasb.

One of the remarkable spatial innovations in Safavid architecture is the tālār (acceptance hall). Although few examples remain today and as in some cases (e.g. Ali Qapu), they were annexed to previous buildings, the elegance and beauty of the overall architectural composition are such that nowadays it is almost impossible to imagine the buildings without tālārs. This raises some questions about their origins, their emergence, and their history of development in the architecture of this period. Although various statements have been proposed, none is sufficiently convincing in the opinion of most experts. The present article sheds light on the origin of the tālār emphasizing a little-studied element in Persian architecture, i.e., tents and temporary structures that were built in gardens. The research employs the interpretive-historical method, analyzing extant textual/pictorial sources. The results indicate that the invention of the tālār could be associated with the development of tent and kiosk structures, where they were repurposed as permanent structures having more columns and a larger scale.

In modern life, the house is the place to feel secure and comfortable; however, the degree to which comfort and security are provided varies for different types of houses. The first-hand experience of Iranian traditional houses and the memories of older generations who lived in those houses explain why so many architects study these houses to look for components of quality in their designs. In the first part of this article, the authors investigate the factors that changed traditional residential architecture throughout the last century in Iran. Next, the modern architectural and planning principles which shaped the modern part of the city, also known as “the town with no alleys,” after the earthquake of 1961 are studied. The research method includes both library and field studies carried out to collect examples of housing typology in the city of Lar. The results of the study show that housing design was significantly affected by political, social, cultural, and economic transformations during the 20th century in Iran. Although they were mainly domestic, global causes also affected the Iranian lifestyle and led to the emergence of new housing models in the last century.  Governmental interventions in urban renewal and mass housing projects have been the most influential factor of the changing urban form. As shown in the typology of houses of the past hundred years in Lar, the creativity and living experiences of previous residents and the genius of architects regarding seismic design are completely ignored in recent models.

City gates are among the most significant, but hardly studied, features of pre-modern cities. The present article studies city gates in early Islamic centuries within the Iranian cultural domain. In this research, primary sources are examined to provide data for a historical narrative of the city gates. The nature of gates, their relation to the city and urban life and, to people’s perception of cities and the surrounding world are studied through three different roles that gates could perform: gates as products of activity, gates as instruments of activity, and gates as places of activity. This study sheds light on some aspects of the nature of gates and their status as a threshold in urban space and their role in defining and indicating the city’s territory. The findings of this study show that different elements and spaces of city gates were organized to control transit at different levels depending on the circumstances. Although there was the possibility of transit between inside and outside at the city gates, it was conditioned by the values and rules that defined the city as a territory. City gates had a significant role in the formation of the image of the city and its territory. City gates were crucial to the security of cities. Because of the status of a threshold and their crucial role in definition and indication of cities’ boundaries, city gates and thereabout events gained a symbolic significance. In fact, city gates were indicative of the city as a territory involving all three physical, social, and symbolic layers.

Vernacular architecture, in terms of authenticity and adaptation to change, is a good case for the examination of necessary principles and characteristics for a durable and sustainable architecture. The purpose of this research is to identify the reasons behind the sustainability of architecture in a historical complex and its relevant criteria. Maymand’s cultural landscape, registered in the World Heritage List in 2015, was selected as a case study due to the existence of different settlements and architectural characteristics. In this research, during a four-year (1394-97) study, review of textual sources, in-depth interviews, and participatory observation were carried out to identify the architectural characteristics of the three settlements in Maymand, and finally, data was analyzed and sustainability criteria identified. The results of the research show that the architecture in Maymand is in full interaction with the characteristics of the landscape, and it is considered sustainable only when it reflects the lifestyle and activities in the cultural-natural context. The sustainability criteria in this research help realize this cultural significance.

Although an important city before the Safavid dynasty, Isfahan mostly owes its weight to the time when it was selected as the capital. This decision was made in the eleventh year of Shah ‘Abbas’ I (1588-1629 AD) reign for security reasons, after which extensive rehabilitation and development took place in the city. The interventions of Shah ‘Abbas I led the development of the city toward the south by crossing the Zayandeh-Rud via Chahar-Bagh street as the main axis, reaching ultimately to Mt. Soffeh. Studies on Safavid Isfahan are mostly limited to constructions during the reign of Shah ‘Abbas the Great. However, it seems that Safavid Isfahan was developed gradually also during the time following that of Shah ‘Abbas I with additional royal constructions in the dowlat-khaneh as well as along the Zayandeh-Rud front. The objective of this paper is to study the stages of development of the Safavid dowlat-khaneh in Isfahan after Shah ‘Abbas I with emphasis on the role of Zayandeh-Rud. In this paper, the urban development of Isfahan is studied from the time Shah ‘Abbas I selected it for his capital in 1598 AD to the end of Shah ‘Abbas’ II reign in 1666 AD, using a descriptive-historical method based on chronicles and documents. The results confirm the existence of a designed urban plan from the beginning of Shah ‘Abbas’ I era which was mostly realized in urban development toward the south during his reign. In the following eras, the limits of urban development expanded so that the riverfront became the ground for the construction of the new dowlat-khaneh. In other words, Zayandeh-Rud and the tendency of Shah ‘Abbas II to perform special ceremonies on its front changed the course of Safavid urban interventions in Isfahan.

Analysis of stability in arch structures is a well-known fact in the conservation of historical monuments, stabilizing efforts, and the design of vernacular and rural structures. Therefore, the authors of this paper are set to explore and compare the threshold values of the seismic stability of three Persian arches, i.e., tokhm-e morqi, morabbaʿ, and panj-o-haft-e-tond. This experimental research uses geometrical analysis and physical models to find the threshold values for the seismic stability of these arches. Analysis of the arches is performed for different thickness-to-span ratios within the “limit state analysis” framework, using “thrust line analysis” with parametric modeling which offers a rigorous and rapid investigation. The results are then compared with the behavior of physical models. The thrust line analysis results show that the seismic stability of these arches, compared to one another, increases by increasing the thickness-to-span ratio and decreasing their rises. The physical models verify these results but show lower threshold values for seismic stability of the arches. So, the effective thickness of the arches must be considered in the analysis. Besides answering a practical problem, this paper gives an insight into the structural behavior of arches.

The Dome of Sultaniyya is one of the most important monuments of the Ilkhanid era in Iran, which has an octagonal plan, eight minarets, and three sections including the dome chamber, turbat-khana, and the cellar. It is abundantly decorated with tilework, stucco, brickwork, etc. One of the key architectural ornaments in this building is geometric decorations that are applied either singularly or in combination with other designs or inscriptions. The purpose of this study is to introduce and derive the typology of geometric decorations used in the architectural ornaments of the Dome of Sultaniyya. Therefore, the main question here is to introduce geometric decorations in the architectural ornaments of the Dome of Sultaniyya and the introduction of their significant types. Data was collected through both field and library research following a descriptive-analytical method. The results of the study show that the use of geometric decorations is among the key types of decorations in this monument, seen in almost all parts of the building such as arches, wall surfaces, etc. These decorations consist mainly of intricate gerehs [lit., knots] and their integration with plant motifs and inscriptions. Different technical applications increase the complexity, variety, and beauty of these decorations. Most gerehs are based on six-, eight-, ten-, and twelve-pointed polygons, which make them exquisite and extensive. Also, the tradition of “transforming knotwork” is considered as one of the important types of decoration in this building.

Among significant sources of past Iranian Islamic architecture theories is the scholarship dating to that cultural era, since a large part of cultural, scientific, practical, ideological, and religious matters are represented in textual compositions of that era. Although ancient Islamic texts do not include a specific book on the theoretical foundations of architecture, there is some old literature from which we can extract basic information and supporting ideas about architecture. This kind of literature has hardly been studied by architectural researchers, while it can provide a clearer and deeper understanding of the past architecture of Iran. The findings show that contrary to common belief, the traditional Islamic architecture system was not limited only to the construction chapter, but that scientific and gnostic knowledge as well, such as geometry and ethics made up a significant share of the training of architects. In this paper, some of the fundamental features of architectural theory in the Islamic world are investigated with inferential analysis, based on Farabi’s extant writings with emphasis on Ehsa al-‘Olum, which is a primary source among other foundational and scholarly works of the early Islamic culture. The results of this research demonstrate that in addition to the consideration of order, logic, mathematics, and geometry, observation of ethics and civil rights were of utmost importance in Islamic craftsmanship, and acquiring human perfection (eternal life) was the ultimate purpose for Muslims in Farabi’s views.

Urban historic areas are the physical manifestations of values, traditions, and ideologies that express the history of societies, their evolution, and cultural identity. These areas, as a part of urban structure, are places for residence, activity, and business of a vast variety of stakeholders with different and sometimes conflicting interests and demands, and on the other hand, are the realm of cultural heritage conservation that imposes some limitations on stakeholders leading to conflicts of interest. Therefore, stakeholder conflicts in such areas are unavoidable and conflict management as part of the urban planning mission is indispensable. Stakeholder identification and analysis of their conflict pattern in urban historic areas provide the platform for stakeholder conflict management, therefore, this paper attempts to identify the involved stakeholders in Sangelaj Buffer Zone Conservation Plan and their perspectives toward it, and finally analyze the conflict pattern resulted from this conservation plan. This study was carried out based on the qualitative research paradigm, and the required data was collected using snowball sampling and in-depth interviews and analyzed and coded in Nvivo10 software based on grounded theory. According to the findings, involved stakeholders in this plan are categorized into “public and private stakeholders” and their perspective toward the plan includes “conflicting”, “interactive”, “power-based” and “neutral”. Conflicting perspective includes “value conflict,” “economic conflict,” and “procedural conflict,” which are classified into two main categories: “conflict of public and private interests” and “organizational conflict”. The authoritarian nature of the conservation planning system, non-participatory and unrealistic conservation plans, the disintegration of urban planning and conservation planning, and the lack of compensation mechanisms for owners are the main reasons for conflict in this conservation plan.

It has been many years that historical textures in contemporary cities have been the focus of many urban planners from different perspectives and different positions, according to which they were the subjects of many interventions. There is quite a lot of criticism on these interventions, while complexities of such textures remain. The theory/practice divide in this field is wide and it poses a serious problem. However, planners believe that their practices are backed by certain theories which also directed them. It seems that all of these endeavors— both in theory and practice— try to create favorable utopian places as conceived by urban planners, professionals, and managers. In this paper, the divide of theory and practice are discussed, and next, based on a pragmatic perspective, a method of intervention in urban textures is introduced and assessed in a historical site in Hamadan. This study, besides introducing a conceptual inquiry and rearranging the pragmatic conception of utopia, provides a suitable context to present various scenarios and plans in response to the current uncertainty and complexity of historical textures. The results of the study show that a pragmatic approach can provide a source of intervention methods in historical textures of contemporary Iranian cities. Moreover, if paired with education and outreach, this approach can introduce purposeful placemaking interventions corresponding to the needs of society.

Dwelling represents a meaningful connection between man and the environment; therefore, residential areas have particular psychological importance. Human dwelling occurs at different social levels, and its meaning is disclosed in relation to the hierarchy of the surrounding social environment. A review of existing literature on meanings shows that both the features of housing and the occurrence of activities in the residential environment have meanings, and, according to the theoretical framework, the inquiry of the meanings of dwelling and its spatial organization shall include four levels: regional, neighborhood, housing, and housing activity level. Research in the field of meanings is exploratory and needs to be investigated in both the ‘dwelling’ and ‘human’ spheres. Therefore, the research method is qualitative and based on logical reasoning. Given the nature of the questionnaire regarding “meanings of dwelling and its spatial organization” and its related theoretical framework, the “means-end model” was used, which is a good model for mapping peoples’ mental content. According to the theoretical framework, the categories included in the questionnaire are meanings of the features of spatial organization in the dwelling such as spatial elements, spatial distances, and spatial directions. On the other hand, meanings of activities include questioning elements such as the type of activity, the temporal and spatial sequence of activities, and the temporality and spatiality of activities. The reliability and validity of the semi-structured questions of “meanings of dwelling and its spatial organization” were checked in the pilot tests. Another section of the paper includes the process of collecting, interviewing, and analyzing questionnaire data. Depending on the purpose of research, the data from the questionnaire can be used in subsequent analyses like descriptive, interpretive, and if needed, statistical and mathematical analyses. Also, each of the four levels of questionnaires can be applied separately in different researches.