پژوهشنامه ادب حماسی
سال شانزدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 30، پاییز و زمستان 1399)

In view of the deep structure of diabolical malevolence and courageous vengeance regarded as a certainty and recognized as a mythological notion this article is concerned with the analysis of the tale of Feraydun where it becomes intertwined with the tale of Jamshid and Zahhak.  What makes the story move towards the tragedy of the death of the first national hero, Iraj although at first glance is Salm and Tur’s greed, however taking into account the characteristic feature of the two brothers that is their satanic malevolence, is the factor which shapes the deep structure of the tale, and eventually lead to the death of a wise brother a kind hero who in all respects differs from the other two.  Therefore it must be mentioned that one of the deep structures of the tales in Shahnameh in particular the tale of Feraydun is the concept of vengeance and retribution which in inherent in the beliefs and characteristic features of the heroes.  The important point in this analysis is the antiquated opposition between the myth of divine good versus diabolical bad which eventually in the battle of Feraydun with Turan and Rum turns into the dispute over lands with opposing political and national interests and ever since this aspect lingers on.

The purpose of this article is to explain the descriptive characteristics of the poetry book of Arash, the archer composed by Siavash Kasraei according to Nima Yushij’s descriptive theory.  Since description is one of the main tenets in Nima’s poetic theory and also because Kasraei is a follower of Nima’s poetic style this article is concerned with the study of this poem from this perspective using descriptive analytic method.  The results obtained show that different themes such as nature and its elements, characters, abstract phenomena, time, place, and objects are described in this poetry book. Expressive devices employed in these descriptions fall into two groups of poetic and grammatical ones, the latter used with higher frequency than the former.  Among the grammatical devices adjective has the most frequency in describing different subjects, and amid the poetic devices simile and personification have the most frequency.  Since employing adjective and simile are regarded as the elements of description, therefore it can be concluded that Kasraei’s poetry book is a descriptive one.  One interesting feature of this work is the application of many different descriptive devices to express one single theme.  Sometimes on the other hand he uses one device repetitively in describing different themes.  In general it can be said that Kasraei had been under the influence of Nima’s descriptive theory in composing this collection and had profited from its precepts.

Levi Strauss, French anthropologist for recognizing the structure of myths breaks them into their basic components and attempts to discover their underlying causes by setting a new arrangement.  Applying Strauss’s theory to the tale of Sohrab, Siavash, and Forud, this article is an attempt to analyze the structure of the tales using descriptive analytic method.The three aforementioned heroes, are half cast warriors in Shahnameh whose love for their fathers’ land and doing service to their mothers’ land are their common characteristics.  The binary oppositions of self vs other (Persian/ non Persian) father vs son, Patriarchy /matriarchy are three main oppositions in the stories which play pivotal role in the emergence of the tragedy.  The results obtained show that the residence of the hero in his motherland in itself creates the opposition of self vs other and plays the most important factor in his destiny.  Also encounter and battle with the half cast hero is superior to the battle with the enemy and the seemingly accidental actions of the Iranians lead to the death of the hero in the tale of Sohrab and Forud.  This is due to the opposition between the patriarchal beliefs of Iranians against the matriarchal beliefs of other cultures.

Kaykhosrow is one of the prominent Kiani kings whose tales constitutes the most captivating part of Shahnameh to itself.  Although Ferdowsi had dealt with all periods of his life from birth to death, yet it seems that his childhood and in particular his mysterious end received more attention by the public all the more reason for being a target for weaving myths around it.  One such narrative is the one narrated by one of the naqqals named Khavar Ghashang in the village of Masaram situated 40 km southwest of Shiraz. This extraordinary narrative is an amalgam of several mythological, epic, religious, and historical narratives to an extent that apart from certain story lines it does not seem to resemble much to its Shahnameh counterpart.  In other words this narrative is a fusion of different adventures related to Cyrus, the great, Feraydun, Zahhak, Holy Mary, and Moses.  This article focuses on parts of the narrative concerning the events surrounding Kaykhosrow’s birth, his growing up, his uprising against his grandfather and finally his fate.  It is assumed that other areas of his life were gradually forgotten since most elders in Masaram cannot recall the story and only a few narrate limited part of the tale.  The purpose of this article is to record this narrative which is not cited in any sources and also to study and analyze its content.

The glory of the tales and their captivating features in Shahnameh have always been the focus of attention by the local poets.  Kurdish poets are no exceptions to this rule and had many times embarked on translation or representation of Shahnameh tales.  One example of such influence is the book of poetry, Siavashnameh the invaluable work composed by Almas Khan Kandulei in Kurdish Gurani dialect following the example of the Tale of Siavash.  The Kurdish poet made an attempt to avoid mere translation and imitation and pay attention to literary creation.  To achieve this end, he narrates the story with more details to recreate another collection of poetry for this reason one encounters more precise cause and effect relations, and plots are more solid than its counterpart in Shahnameh, hence it could be used as a key to solve certain ambiguities in the tale of Siavash in Shahnameh and serve to provide solutions for the questions as yet left unanswered.  The writers of this article while making an effort to introduce Almas Khan and deal with his biography and works, also made an attempt to examine the two tales in terms of narrative, content, and events in the story and cite their points of difference employing comparative analytic method.  Moreover for certain actions and events in the story appropriate mythological analysis are provided.

 Since Halliday’s functional grammar provides the possibility of studying texts as a complete consistent whole it proves quite efficient in conducting literary studies.  This branch of modern grammar relies on three main metafunctions including ideational, interpersonal, and textual ones, and is concerned with inspection of texts as well as examining the role of language in representation of reality, interpersonal interactions, and meaning of texts. Ideational metafunction is further divided into six kinds of processes which include material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal, and existential ones.  In ancient epic works due to the fact that the composer made an effort to create an objective palpable image from a national heroic tale he employed material processes more than other process types, however in new epics considering the change of coordinates in human societies, the composer depending on the form he selects for his tale may use different processes in his work.  Mehdi Akhavan Sales who is the most distinguished contemporary epic composer had made use of mental and verbal processes the most, in the eighth trial poem.  The narrative form of the tale, presence of a naqqal in the tale, and then the presence of the poet as naqqal or the second narrator, the descriptive dominance of the structure of the tale, and also the connection of the tale with Rostam’s seventh trial are the chief reasons for employing these kinds of processes in the eighth trial.

The book of poetry Dalil Al – Jinan wa Rukn Al – Iman Fi Waqayi Al - Jamal wa Al - saffayn wa Al – Nahrawan is composed by Abbas Nasekh Turk in the eleventh century Hijri.  This collection as its name suggests concerns Imam Ali and his battles Jamal, Saffayn, and Nahrawan.  Amid this religious epic there are nine stories regarding uprisings occurred in various cities and regions in Iran.  These areas are as follows:  Ghore, Mazandaran, Sistan, Ghaen, Marv, Fars, Isfahan, Amol, and Ahwaz.  In historical sources also there are certain references to Iranians’ revolts in the reign of Imam Ali the most of important of which occurred in Ahwaz, Fars, Khorasan, Rey, Daylam, and Sajestan areas.  Using descriptive analytic method this research discusses the narratives in this religious epic and compares them with the historical ones.  The results reveal that some of these narratives such as the revolt of  Khorriat in Ahwaz or people’s revolt in Fars are to a certain extent correspond with historical sources, however other revolts such as that of Kavus Ibn Gobd in Isfahan or Faramarz Ibn Hoshang in Mazandaran are not referred to in historical texts.  It is assumed that these accounts come from sources no longer available today or that they are stories shifted form one historical period to another. There is also this possibility that these popular tales are narratives finding their ways in this book of poetry.  In other words they are myths and popular tales which have transformed into history.

In examining epic in particular religious epics whose heroes are prophets and prominent religious figures who are connected to the source of inspiration and revelation, if not all, most are aware of the events and destiny of the characters, predict future and speak about the far and near past, narrative time gains most attention.  Based on the perspectives of the following theorists such as Rimmon Kenan, Gerald Prince, Heidegger, and in particular Gerard Genette this article aims to examine the notion of time in the two epic poems Rabi’s Alinameh the first religious epic after Islam and Sahba’s Eftekharnameh, accounted as the last religious epic, and also explore and analyze them in terms of order, duration, and frequency.  Employing descriptive analytic method together with applying comparative literature approach to these works denote that due to  employing multiple time intervals and high frequency of anticipation in relation to looking into past they lend themselves to further examinations.  The study of duration shows that speed in most parts of the stories in two works in particular in Eftekharnameh is a positive one and the study of frequency shows that Alinameh seems to proceed with lower speed in relation with Eftekharnameh since its composer uses the aspect of frequency repetitively while in Eftekharnameh the composer benefited from using the aspect of narrator more.

Recitation is a kind of epic storytelling using screens on which are displayed illustrated scenes drawn from epic, mythological, and religious stories.  Putting together three elements of speech, picture, and performance made this art to be counted as the most influential and dramatic form of epic storytelling in between the traditional Iranian arts.  However despite possessing unique characteristics, by comparison to other Persian arts recitation has not been studied thoroughly.  This article is an attempt to deal with the recitation origins of this dramatic art of illustrated storytelling and the manner of its performance, and also examine its epic aspects.  The results obtained show that its history and origin goes back to the period before Islam in particular to the time that Mani, the Persian painter prophet emerged.  After Islam and in particular in Safavid era recitation received ample attention and this art was developed since due to retaining epic aspects, it was assumed as a unifying art.  Based on the researches, this epic aspect of this ancient art were drawn from Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh narrative and religious epics, being the main source for naqqals’ narratives.  The epic present in the narrative conveyed epic aspect to the other two chief components of the recitation that is painting and performance in such a way that one can name recitation the epic art of illustrated recitation.

Environmental crisis in the present era have led man to seek fundamental solutions to overcome these crisis and their consequences. Ecofeminism as an approach branching from feminism with Eco environmental beliefs attempts to change the beliefs that are merely after managing the consequences of the environmental crisis.  Eco feminists regard endless developing oriented beliefs of men as the main reason for the destruction of the environment and they are after finding ways to equalize the standpoint of women with men and prevent men to carry out their dominant intentions.  The relationship of women with nature, the connection between dominance over woman and nature, and the role of women in solving the ecological problems are among the main tenets of Eco feminism.  As an epic masterpiece, Shahnameh has exerted significant influence over the Persians thought and culture and its study with the Ecofeministic eye could prove beneficial.  Relying on the library sources and employing descriptive analytic method this article aims to examine the mourning and weeping of women (Tahmineh, Farangis, and Katayun) in Shahnameh from the perspective of Ecofeminism.  The outcome of the research is that this mourning in most cases is feminine device to stand against the dominance of men, and their hunger for development and expansion; expansion which is closely connected with the war and destruction of the environment and in this regard it goes hand in hand with eco feministic purposes.

Among Shahnameh followers, Garshasbnameh composed by Asadi Tusi has an important standpoint.  By going to Azarbayjan and staying in its favorable grounds Tusi aspired to complete the Shahnameh and like Nezami he embarked on composing parts of the national narratives in Shahnameh not previously composed. Completing the work of predecessors are often accompanied by the anxiety of influence and imitation, and the poets attempt to relieve themselves from the shadow of their precursors.  The purpose of this article is to determine the attempts made by Asadi Tusi to exit from the arena of influence posed by form, language and thoughts in Shahnameh as the model according to Harold Bloom’s argument.  The results show that due to the anxiety of influence experienced by Tusi he wanted to overcome this anxiety by being different from Shahnameh, and escape from its circle of influence.  By introducing Brahman in place of Mobad or priest and including ideological questions posed by Garshasb regarding the creation of life and man, and also by turning to verbosity, and beautiful solid descriptions,  governing new perspective and philosophy different from the ancient Persian thought regarding the main issue of justice in government and justice of kings, also selecting theatrical functions such as egotism, prowess in battle, and placing scenes and numerous sea battle episodes, repetitive dragon killing spectacles, and most important of all, attributing abilities such as trial of the preeminent hero to Zahhak and setting the story in Zahhak’s era  under the surveillance of a dragon who feeds on humans, and a father killer render this work different from Shahnameh.  However various signs of dependence, manifested in the repetition of the hemistiches and verses attest to the influence of Shahnameh over Garshasbnameh.  Asadi in dialectic of “dependence on swerving from the poetic language of his precursor had been dependent on Shahnameh and at the same time departed from it.

Intertextual relationship is the most important principle in shaping new texts, nevertheless texts coming from different disciplines have always influenced one another and there exists an intertextual connection between them. Based on this notion the purpose of this research is to explore and determine the extent to which the local historical writings were influenced by Shahnameh as a pretext and an ideal literary model.  Gerard Genette’s transtextuality theory which is the most complete theory in the study and recognition of the relation between texts is used in this article to find an answer to the question.  This research makes use of descriptive analytic and library method.  The study and the analysis of the textual data reveals that the local historians with significant frequency have employed four kinds of intertextual elements such as indirect speech, allusion, reference, and plagiarism in historical texts, hence Shahnameh as a pretext served as an ideal model to meet their expectations, motivations and purposes.