مجله پژوهش های راهبردی مسائل اجتماعی ایران
سال نهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 28، بهار 1399)

Compared with physical and human capital, social capital plays a very important role in organizations and societies (Lin & Huang, 2009:191). The lack of social capital not only causes other capitals to lose their effectiveness but also creates difficulties in the paths of cultural and economic development (Paxton, 1999:92). Social capital provides a working basis for human and physical capital productivity and is central to the development of organizational resources (Ferri, Deakins & Whittam, 2009:141). Social capital theory has become increasingly important in recent decades, stressing the importance of social networking benefits (Kim & Kim, 2017). The theory contends that social relationships provide a basis for the exchange of resources and information, as well as knowledge for network members (Kim, Lee & Bonn, 2016). Social capital influences teamwork and job performance because as Adler and Kwon (2002: 31) state, the first advantage of social capital is the distribution of information. Social capital facilitates access to broader information sources and improves the quality, relevance, and appropriateness of information. They argue that the creation of networks of influence, control, and power is another advantage of social capital. They also acknowledge that coherence is the third factor in social capital theory. Portes (1998:10) considers the innovative and exploratory power of social capital from two aspects: first, this concept emphasizes the positive consequences of socialization and neglects the less attractive features. Second, it locates positive consequences beyond the discussion of capital and attracts the attention to how such non-monetary forms (e.g., the volume of assets or bank accounts) can be significant sources of power and effectiveness.  

The research method is quantitative using structural equation modeling to analyze the data. The study uses descriptive statistics and correlational techniques to answer the research questions. The study’s population included all 735 Bu-Ali Sina University staff. Based on Morgan’s Table, the final sample size was determined. Using a simple random sampling method, 253 participants were selected and surveyed. The data were collected using Nahapit and Goshal’s (1998) Social Capital Inventory (a 28-items Likert scale questionnaire measuring three dimensions of Relational, Cognitive and Structural), Lencioni (2006) Teamwork Questionnaire (a 19-items Likert scale questionnaire assessing five dimensions of commitment, trust, responsibility, constructive contact, and purposefulness), and  Paterson's (1963) Job Performance Questionnaire (a15-item Likert scale questionnaire). Cronbach's alpha was used to measure the reliability of the instruments. The internal consistency reliability of the questionnaires was as follows: social capital (0.90), teamwork (0.942), and job performance (0.91). This indicates that the instruments were internally acceptable. Confirmatory factor analysis was employed to examine the validity of the instruments. To analyze the data, frequency distribution, mean, standard deviation, and Pearson correlation matrix were used. Confirmatory path analysis was run using LISREL.

The results showed that the variables of social capital and teamwork have a positive effect on University staffs’ job performance at 0.05 level. It was also found that social capital mediated by teamwork has a positive and significant effect on job performance at the 0.05 level. Based on the results of fitness indices in the confirmatory path analysis of the research model, we can conclude that, a) according to the assigned criterion, the ratio of χ² to df indicates that the conceptual model fits well with the measurement model, b) the value of the RMSEA index is acceptable, indicating the acceptable level of error, and c) the values of CFI, GFI and AGFI indices indicate the appropriate fitness of the structural model. Thus, according to the obtained results, it can be pointed out that the structural model of the study is acceptable. To justify the results, it can be argued that social capital enables the organization to acquire, combine, recombine, release resources and rebuild its capabilities in response to the environment dynamics (Lee, Li & Wu, 2018). Social capital refers to the capital that results from the interaction with individuals (Schenkel & Garrison, 2009: 527). It is inherently found in social relationships within an organization and is considered an important organizational asset (Andrews, 2010). Trust and mutual interaction that are indicators of social capital enhance teamwork and collaboration in the workplace (Read & Laschinger, 2015). It critically facilitates access to information and resources to promote performance and environmental opportunities (Jansen, Curşeu, Vermeulen, Geurts & Gibcus, 2013). Social capital along with characteristics of social life, norms, and trust enables participants to work together to achieve their shared goals more effectively (Chou, 2006). Social capital is a multidimensional concept that represents the characteristics of individuals and influences their social relationship and collaboration (Nenadovic & Epstein, 2016). It is demonstrated that social capital facilitates coordination and collaboration among employees, leading to greater productivity within the organization (Sulemana, 2015:1301).

A review of the historical documents and references related to Tehran reveals that this city has been always intrigued by water shortage. In the not-too-distant past, water used to be provided by rivers and uncovered streams that were polluted and contained urban waste. During the recent decades and following the economic development of the country and technological development of water-related industries, several urban plans were executed in different regions of the country, particularly in Tehran as the capital of Iran. These plans led to wide structural changes in the spatial structure of the city. Gradually, these spatial changes led to the cultural development of the residents and immigrants to this city, who became its main residents, such that residents of Tehran have recorded the highest water consumption rate in Iran. The present study shows that taking a bath, which is an essential need and an integral part of the urban and civilized lifestyle today, is a developmental process and its historical course is indicative of the cultural construction of this phenomenon. This construction was reconstructed in a period of contemporary history leading to a critical level of water consumption. Therefore, the authors of this study seek to find an answer to these questions: What changes have the bathroom and taking a bath undergone in their historical course? What are the conditions leading to fundamental changes in washing customs of people? In other words, the present study is an attempt to compare the main structural and cultural features of taking a bath in the past and today, on the one hand, and to examine the structural conditions of mental and cultural changes, on the other hand, to gain a better understanding of the habits and cultural features of the people of Tehran.

The present study was carried out taking a theoretical qualitative approach and drawing on an ethnographic approach. Field studies and participatory observations from 2015 to 2019 were the main sources of data. The study was particularly focused on water consumption and household water use from 2015 to 2018. The data related to the past was also obtained by the historical method. For this purpose, historical texts, travelogues, and images from the past were used. Tourists’ and western politicians’ travelogues such as those of Chardin, Drewville, and Tavernier in the Safavid period were rich sources of data for knowing about the Iranian community and its internal elements such as bathrooms and bathing customs. Written documents and valuable images shared on the cyberspace and the internet as an important part of historical documents related to the spatial structure, architecture of bathrooms and bathing customs and culture in the past were used as the basis of our analysis of the past. The research field included Tehran. To obtain a large volume of information based on the purpose and the questions addressed in the study, two purposeful samplings were made and maximum diversity was used in the group and individual dialogues with two families and 30 citizens of Tehran. This article was written using the authors’ experience of participating in the living environment of the people of Tehran along with in-depth semi-structured interviews with the participants. Brown and Clark’s thematic analysis (2006) was used for analyzing the data obtained via individual and group interviews and field observations.

With the execution of renovation programs in Iran during the last century and the country becoming richer as the result of selling oil, major changes were gradually made possible in the cultural system, on the one hand, and in the psychological drives at the individual level, on the other hand, and people became more civilized. After the reformations made by Reza Shah for centralizing the power, the community became increasingly complicated making public relationships more intertwined and making different social classes growingly interdependent. During these years, consumerism and, consequently, increased water consumption as one of the signs of civilization grew.  One of the important functions of bathrooms is to deny and hide one’s primary nature. In other words, the bathroom and bathing in the modern period were accompanied by individualism and the community becoming more civilized.The transformation of the spatial structure of bathrooms and the bathing culture as a consequence of the changes in the water supply system was the predictable result of the renovation process. A review of the history of bathing and bathrooms in Iran reveals that considerable changes have been made from the period of popularity of public bathrooms to the in-house or private bathrooms. In the past, the distance between bathrooms and homes, informal supervision and control, lack of public belief in the need to observe health protocols, financial problems, and technical problems related to water supply made bathing an occasional action with a large time interval in between. The social functions of bathrooms in the form of helping one another in getting washed, massaging, cutting one’s hair, its health and hygiene dimensions, performing religious rites, visiting others, informing others, etc. turned bathrooms into a place very much different from what it is now.In the new era, however, with the development of water supply technologies and improved economic conditions, bathrooms gradually changed into an indoor place with features different from what it used to be. The development of washing facilities and belief in increased access to bathrooms led people to add bathing to their list of daily activities. Bathroom privatization brought about proper hygiene standards. With indoor shower heads being replaced, bathrooms were no longer a place for accumulation of dirt in public bathing pools (referred to as ‘Khazineh’). The growing aesthetic standards by using bathroom tiles of different happy colors on the floor and walls of the bathroom, installing a mirror in the bathroom, designing different functional and luxurious shower heads, bathtubs, lighting, playing music in the bathroom were indicative of the change of the meaning of bathroom and its expected functions in the modern era. Easier access to bathrooms was one of the reasons for the reduced interval between the times of bathing. As the duration of bathing was shortened considering the changes in its traditional functions such as elimination of its social, religious and aesthetic aspects, the spatial structure of bathrooms was modified in a way that it was no longer possible to stay in the bathroom for a long time due to its limited space. Accordingly, the term ‘taking a shower’, which refers to fast bathing in the small space of the bathroom while standing, entered the bathing literature in the contemporary era.Under the conditions, bathing acquired numerous functions. It was a place for getting personal privacy, expression of feelings, crying, laughing, unburdening oneself with water, thinking, singing, refreshment, getting a feeling of peace, cleaning the body and soul. It was also an appropriate space for the appearance of a spiritual sense, focus on one’s body and looking into the mirror, touching one’s body when under the shower and getting the feeling of softness and warmth of the water as an external thing and the appearance of a sexual feeling, development of a better feeling of oneself, improving the sense of unity with oneself, increased self-confidence in interpersonal relationships and civil behavior for avoiding visual and olfactory contamination. All these acquired high significances in becoming civilized.

During the last twenty years, interpersonal violence has become a major concern. The transition from a traditional society to a modern society means changing the patterns of behavior and discourse that govern society. In a sense, entering a modern society means changing behaviors. One of these patterns of behavior is violence against women in the public and private spheres of society. Violence against women has been part of human history around the world and, unfortunately, is still regarded as an epidemic problem. Violence against women is a global problem. Violence affects the lives of millions of women across all social, economic, and educational classes around the world, as well as removing all cultural and religious barriers and preventing women's rights to fully participate in society. According to the World Health Organization, violence is defined as the use of physical force and power, a threat or action against another person or groups of people (society) that leads to bruising, death, psychological problems, anomalies, and deprivation of rights. This research emphasized the theory of radical feminism and its main focus was on unequal structures in the society in the private and public spheres. And from this point of view, it was intended to examine and test the attitude towards wife-beating among male students. 

This research was a survey study. The research plan for this survey was cross-sectional. That is, the information was collected from the sample at a specific time. The statistical population of this study consisted of all male students of the Mazandaran University campus. To determine the sample size, the appropriate stratified random sampling method has been used and 428 students were selected by stratified sampling. Multiple regression analysis was used to analyze the data according to the level of measurement of the studied variables. Besides, all stages of data processing were performed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. To validate the research questionnaire, the content validation method was used. To measure the validity of the research instrument, Cronbach's alpha coefficient was also used. 

Men's violence against women is not a new phenomenon and has a long history. But considering it as a social issue is a new problem. Violence against women has always been a legitimate form of male domination in human history. That is, a kind of social control that arises directly from the patriarchal construction of societies. The social and psychological consequences of violence against women are enormous. The results of many studies have shown that gender-based violence is the cause of multiple physical, mental, and psychological disorders that affect women. In the analysis of violence against women, attitude is an important element that can guide behavior, so awareness of attitude helps us to predict people’s behavior. Researchers believe that attitudes and beliefs that strengthen men’s masculinity and power can be a reason for men to use violence against women. Radical feminists argue that the roots of violence against women at the macro and micro levels are the unequal structure of society, and argue that patriarchy is a major factor in men’s domination and oppression of women. The independent variables of this research included husbands’ patriarchal beliefs, holding husbands responsible for their violence, blaming the wife for violence against her, accepting the sex-role stereotypes, and marriage role expectations. To test the research hypotheses, the variable ‘attitude of male students of Mazandaran University towards women’ was examined as a dependent variable. The findings of this study indicated that men’s violence was considered as a mechanism, in which men, both as a group and as a single individual were able to exercise control over women in the structure of the society and family, and thus their superiority. The culture and social structure of patriarchal society perpetuated men's abuse with women, and patriarchy was a direct cause of feminism. The theoretical achievement of this research was related to the application of the theory of radical feminism in the study of male students’ attitudes towards women. Also, the research showed that among the five variables studied, the variable ‘accepting the sex-role stereotypes’ was more important than the others. It can be used to explain the attitude of male students of Mazandaran University towards women.

Happiness is one of the most essential innate desires and mental needs of human and because of its major impact on community health and well-being, it has long occupied people's minds. Today, it is also part of the efforts and costs of citizens to achieve happiness, vitality, and lively spaces (especially in urban settings). At the end of the 20th century, the issue of human happiness and vitality was discussed as one of the important issues. Because one of the problems of societies is the negligence of happiness and vitality, and consequently, the increase of mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression especially in the cities. Expanding urbanization and increasing social issues in Ahvaz endanger citizens’ mental, social and subsequent wellbeing and specify the need to address the status of the citizens’ happiness based on appropriate indicators in this city. Ahvaz as a metropolis faces many problems in the form of urban life such as migration and emergence and expansion of suburbs (about % 40 of Ahvaz), high rate of crime, the heterogeneous population structure of the city and the presence of multiple ethnicities which sometimes lead to ethnic challenges, special weather conditions of Khuzestan province and Ahvaz city (the existence of dust phenomena can have health hazards on the health of citizens including respiratory and heart diseases, etc.), migration (motivation and wave of tendency to migrate among middle classes or individuals and patients with a weak immune system). Therefore, in the city of Ahvaz, the environmental vitality of the citizens is recognized as an important issue becoming more and more important as the urbanization process develops and urban problems increase. In this regard, it is necessary to extract and design new components and indicators to measure the level of happiness of citizens.

The methodology of research is descriptive-analytical. Initially, key variables explaining vitality were extracted from the subject and background. Then, the Delphi method was used to gather the experts' opinions and prioritize their consensus criteria. To analyze and prioritize the environments affecting the happiness of Ahvaz citizens, the similarity model to the fuzzy ideal option was used. The statistical population of this study is experts (including university professors, municipal and urban experts in Ahvaz ...). Due to the lack of theoretical framework and insufficient knowledge of the number and characteristics of the statistical population and considering the nature and purpose of the research sampling method, which is mainly based on qualitative-heuristic and expert-oriented approach, a sample of 30 experts was considered.  

  Based on findings experts identified various indicators that affect happiness. Indicators were categorized into economic, socio-behavioral, physical, leisure, political-administrative, natural environment, and ecological, mental-perceptual, and religious beliefs. Analysis of the priorities of the environments affecting the happiness of Ahvaz's citizens shows that the natural environment and ecosystem ranked first with 0.5443 points. Priority of this indicator in Ahvaz is due to the city environmental challenges such as air pollution (dust pollution, air pollution from industries), waste management challenge, and water pollution (poor quality). This raises concerns of Ahvaz's citizens. The existence of dust in Ahvaz city has affected the health of citizens (respiratory, heart disease, etc.). Economic environment factors with a score of 0.5347 had the second priority. Priority of this indicator is due to the average unemployment rate in Ahvaz (26.5%), which according to the official average of Iran (12.75%), shows general conditions in Ahvaz city in this regard. In addition, the share of informal employment in Ahwaz is 60.7%. According to these statistics, the labor market situation is bad for both men and women. Leisure environment with a score of 0.5346 had the third priority for creating and enhancing the happiness for citizens. Factors related to physical, socio-behavioral, mental-perceptual, political-administrative and religious-belief environments were scored as 0.596, 0.520, 0.5174, 0.5168 and 0.4984, respectively, as fourth to eighth rankings. Based on this prioritization, we can plan for the criteria and enhancement of happiness in Ahvaz.

Nowadays, the benefits of using computer systems and local area networks have become an essential tool for the success of managers and are common in most developed countries. In particular, the Internet has become an essential part of the working and daily lives of many employees, and organizations, through the activities of various departments, gain the opportunities and potentials provided by the Internet very quickly and use them to achieve their goals accordingly (Machado et al., 2014). In today’s constantly changing world, the Internet enables organizations to lower their costs and provide better products and services.  In addition to the benefits it has created in  organizations, the Internet is also an effective business tool; it has also made the world's largest entertainment tool available to employees (Razmi et al, 2018). However, the staff’s personal and unnecessary use of the Internet, which is referred to as cyberloafing, has become a major concern for managers of organizations.

 The study is an applied research in terms of its purpose and descriptive-correlational in terms of research type. The statistical population of the study was a total of 1317 employees of organizations located in the city of Khorramabad, Lorestan province. Based on the Morgan table, a sample size of 297 was selected by the stratified random sampling method. In order to measure the variables of the research, a standard questionnaire was used. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were confirmed by using the content validity method and Cronbach’s alpha. For data analysis, the structural equation modeling and PLS software were used.  

 The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of bureaucratic culture on employee cyberlooping among the personnel of governmental departments of Lorestan Province with the mediating role of organizational laziness. The first hypothesis was developed in such a way that bureaucratic culture had a positive and significant effect on employee cyberbullying. The results of the analysis of the research data showed that the first hypothesis was confirmed. In other words, bureaucratic culture, by allowing the minimum and regardless of the principle of competition and continuous improvement of the quality and quantity of work has made a lot of extra time available to employees and this has caused inappropriate use of the organization’s communication network for entertainment and personal work. The second hypothesis of the research was that bureaucratic culture had a positive and significant effect on the organizational laziness of employees in governmental organizations in Lorestan province. The results of this study confirmed this hypothesis. In other words, in a bureaucratic culture, clear tasks, hierarchical powers, strict rules, discipline, low employee engagement, and formal and hierarchical relationships are all factors that undermine employee freedom of action and creativity. This causes employees to become lazy on their own. In fact, people might not see any challenge in performing their duties and prefer to refrain from doing repetitive tasks and work under any pretext. The third hypothesis of this study was developed in such a way that organizational laziness had a positive and significant effect on employee’s cyberbullying. The results of the analysis of the research data confirmed this hypothesis. In other words, organizational laziness and not paying attention to the central result and output of employees and leaving them to do the minimum that ultimately leads to the spread of organizational laziness could created so much job-free time in the organization and members of the organization might fill this extra time by misusing the organization’s Internet. The fourth hypothesis, which is, in fact, the main purpose of the present study, was that a bureaucratic culture increases the misbehavior of cyberbullying through the mediating variable of organizational laziness. The results of the analysis of the collected data confirmed this hypothesis. In fact, bureaucratic culture provides employees with a lot of extra time by defining the minimum work floor and regardless of the outputs and maximum potentials which in turn time leads to the spread of laziness in the organization. As a result, the employees escape boredom by misusing the organization’s communication network resources.

Each city and local community is considered a unique model that has its own people, physical spaces and urban structures, values, and history. Therefore, each city also has its own security problems. Some of them are related to the rights of their local community. So, some cities offer more services to their local community than other people. Changes in recent decades have caused new facilities of today's cities to be unable to provide peace and security to their citizens as in the past. There are countless factors in cities that can threaten, reduce, or eliminate security in cities. Among these factors, some public spaces have a high capacity in reducing the security of cities. Due to the congestion and the scattered urban surface, public spaces always show high statistics in conflict with the personal space of individuals and violations of their security. Therefore, it can be said that today most urban spaces have taken on a gendered nature, and in practice, it is believed that urban spaces may impose restrictions on the free movement of women. Women make up half of the world's population. Therefore, paying attention to reducing the vulnerability of women in the face of insecurity and special attention to their needs, in order to respond to this lack of security, have been considered in urban public spaces. Creating a sense of mental tranquility and vitality in women, designing and planning exclusive public spaces for the use of this particular group are located in the agenda of urban managers and authorities. This policy has had dual effects. An example of such an approach in planning and designing public spaces is the creation of women's parks. This policy has had different effects. Proponents of the policy believe that the main purpose of planning and designing these exclusive spaces in the city is to increase the use of the city's capacity for more women, not to separate women from men. However, many women rights activists are not optimistic about such urban projects and see the distinction between these parks as a form of social discrimination. Given the consequences and results of the implementation of this urban policy, this question has been addressed in this study: Does promoting women's understanding of the security of the women's park space increase their satisfaction and use of this environment?

In this study, after reviewing documentary and thematic studies, the theoretical model of research was developed. Then, the concept of women's sense of safety has become measurable using the conceptualization method based on the relationship of contextual components with the category of spatial quality criteria in the form of an operational model.For each variable, questions were entered in a questionnaire to be collected and analyzed in the study area. The statistical population consisted of all women in Boostan-e Madaran Park (Mothers’ Park) in the age group of 14 to 64 years. Using Cochran's formula, the sample size was assumed to be 179. The content validity of items was confirmed by experts' opinion. Also, for the validity of the research, the reliability coefficient (Cronbach's alpha coefficient) was used.After entering and categorizing the data in Excel and SPSS software, the mean and effect of the underlying components were measured using statistical analysis methods and regression correlation coefficient. Also, the relationship between individual mediating variables and women's sense of safety variable was assessed using Spearman's correlation methods, chi-square coefficient, and V-Cramers.

In this study, Boostan-e Madaran Park (Mothers’ Park) in Andisheh New Town as the only exclusive and thematic park for women with a trans-regional function was selected.  The operational model was assessed by surveying women using the park. Finally, in accordance with the analysis, solutions to improve the internal and external performance of the park were presented. According to the results of t-test, the perceived safety rate of the park from the women’s viewpoint was relatively high (mean 3.94). This rate indicated the high level of women's group use (4.17), the presence of individual freedoms for women (4.06), and the proper enjoyment of the park from green space (4.28). In addition, the results showed that in order to increase the satisfaction of women from the park, it is necessary to improve the status of the contextual indicators based on the hierarchy obtained from the first-type and second-type variables. Thus, in the social dimension, the level of interaction between individuals in space and the variable of group networks of women (beta 0.527) was more important. In the functional dimension, space use (beta 0.691) was the most important index. Finally, in the environmental dimension, the index of access to environmental facilities and equipment, the variable of public and health facilities, and special services for women (beta 0.299) had the highest importance in increasing women's satisfaction.