پژوهشنامه مکتب های ادبی
پیاپی 2 (زمستان 1396)

The present study is mainly concerned with the analysis and investigation of expressionistic tenets in select odes by Ahmad Adib Peshawari which can also be traced in his other works such as "Book of Kaiser." Expressionist images of supremacist incidents and war atrocities in his poetry to a great extent are akin to contemporary Western literary and artistic schools. These tenets were created as a result of hard experiences of the involved nations in the war. The underlying assumption of the study is that expressionism is a universal school which emerged from similar experiences all around the world. This disproves the claim that Adib’s poetry was under the influence of Western European literary schools or the works of avant-garde German writers. Apart from anti-militarism, criticism of the chaotic Wilhelmian world and apocalyptic prophecies of war repercussions, his poetry also enjoys a creative expressiveness in literary style, notably in image-making, symbolic characterization and abstraction. These representations also resemble to some artistic and literary schools of the period.

Romanticism is an intellectual, artistic and social movement which appeared in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in Europe in the wake of a short period of Enlightenment. Much like all other revolutions, this literary-artistic movement initially faced oppositions. However, romanticists eventually managed to promote their principles and values in European societies via their own artistic genius and originality. In Iran, in the wake of Constitutionalism, Romanticism inspired many intellectuals and poets. This study purports to address the life of Khayam Neyshaburi, the fifth and sixth centuries poet, and trace Romantic ideas and thoughts in his poetry. One of the main tenets of Romanticism is the spontaneous overflow of individual emotions. In like manner, Khayam’s poetry also reflects his personal feelings about the universe, life, death, despair and cynicism, all of which are represented minimalistically in Rubayi stanzaic form.

“Shab-e Howl” is the only novel by Hormoz Shahdadi which employs stream of consciousness technique under the influence of intellectuals in post-Constitutional period. The author had previously published articles and short stories whose ideas and approaches can be traced in this novel. The naturalistic atmosphere of the novel is reflected in its dialogues, the characters’ behaviors and thoughts, and also the names of Western and contemporary Iranian writers mentioned in the work. In the meantime, the writer made use of stream of consciousness technique in the novel. Now the question is whether or not such a technique has anything to do with naturalistic thoughts. This paper initially addresses the roots of naturalism in the West and Iran, enumerating general naturalistic features of the novel. Then, it analyzes the impacts of stream of consciousness technique on the story’s development, pointing to opportunities and obstacles the writer faces following the employment of the technique along with textual evidence.

As a reaction and protest against classicism, rationalism and positivism, romanticism emerged in the late eighteenth century with an emphasis on individuality and personal feelings and emotions. The school replaced ethereal and mystical love with physical and terrestrial love and communication. The present study aims to analyze the features and representations of social and amorous romanticism in poems by Nima Yooshij and Badr Shakir al Sayyab. The findings of the research show that Nima and Sayyab composed their works in line with the personal, social and cultural conditions of their own time. Early in their career, both poets narrated their memories of terrestrial love in their works; Sayyab described his love affairs in his romantic works and even named the beloved in an attempt to portray their romantic relationship. Nevertheless, Jaykur, Sayyab’s birthplace, sometimes plays the role of the beloved in his poems. Later on, Sayyab detached himself from romantic poetry and addressed radical social thoughts in his works. In contrast to Sayyab, Nima never failed to deal with love in his poetry; however, the themes of Nima’s love poetry as a young man differ from those of his romantic poems as a middle-aged artist. It can be pointed out that love, in its personal sense, is more prominent in Sayyab’s works while Nima mostly focuses on social love.

Surrealism is a twentieth century literary movement in France whose main aim is to encapsulate pristine feelings and give rise to the automatic play of imagination. As a safe haven for people, Surrealism emerged following World War I and its concomitant repercussions in a bid to represent war anxieties, social inequalities, and imperialistic power. Now the question is whether or not the Holy Defense poems, written during and after Iran-Iraq war, also reflect surrealistic features. This paper tries to analyze and trace surrealistic tenets in the works of five major Holy Defense poets. The findings of the project demonstrate that these select poems possess some of surrealistic features such as automatic writing, humor and irony, love and madness and intoxication, imagination and hallucination, dream, fear and horror and anxiety, ambiguity, grotesque images, surrealism objects and sorrow.

The seventeenth century was the era of great French writers and playwrights such as Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Molière. Among them, Corneille is considered as the father of French tragedy in the history of French literature. Creating prestigious characters who seek immortality for the purpose of gaining honor and glory, and trying to prove their self-esteem and absolute individual identity, Corneille has staged tragedies with a happy ending. These heroes are attempting to fulfill their duties and achieve fame and glory via different ways such as the revival of the aristocratic dignity, extreme patriotism and religious faith. Although Corneille’s dramatic works were apparently tragic, the glorious deaths of main characters at the end of the plays left them with tragic spirit. This is while according to Aristotle, the essence of tragedy is the hero’s scandal and misery at the end of the play. The present research intends to investigate Corneille’s literary career via the study of four of his works: Le Cid, Horace, Cinna and Polyeucte. In so doing, this study also analyzes the motivations of the heroic actions of his characters and simultaneously, highlights the key role of reason and the Cornelian dilemma in the performance of duties and heroism.