نشریه غرب شناسی بنیادی
سال یازدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 22، پاییز و زمستان 1399)

In developing his Foundations of the Science of Knowledge, Fichte draws on two theoretical elements, the meaning of autonomy in Kant's thought, and a practical element, the French Revolution. In this regard, by completing Kant's autonomy (using the experience of the French Revolution), it enables it to penetrate the realm of necessity and foreign substance, and thus transforms freedom into a power beyond Kant's imagination. In this regard, he proposes two theories of action and rational intuition, an unprecedented dichotomy with Kant's philosophy in two areas of changing the theory of how experience is formed and the displacement of self-consciousness instead of consciousness. With these two changes, Fichte creates a new meaning of idealism, reality, and subjectivity. These new elements in Fichte's philosophy are formed not only by the dialectical construction between the French Revolution and Kantian autonomy, but also by the way in which the theory of freedom and how it is developed in the French Revolution is discovered. With this event, Fichte frees the Science of Knowledgefrom the double fall of the face of autonomy with necessity and the revolution with terror.

Focusing on the will to power and reach the superman, Nietzsche's moral thought despises any system based on human humiliation, and introduces Christianity for promoting the morality of slavery, as the morality of the weak, which its emphasis on the original sin and inherent pollution of man kills the spirit of will and power and self-esteem in people. Applying a phenomenological method, this research has tried to find the Islamic teachings which drew Nietzsche's attention and to explore the consistency of his intellectual system with those teachings. According to him, Islam is a religion that recognizes the passion, will, selectivity, and authenticity of man and has an honest understanding of human nature, and a positive and realistic view of the world that is in line with Nietzsche's philosophy and especially the idea of ​​the will to power. Moreover, the theory of perspectivism has contributed to a pluralistic understanding of religions, and the adaptation of some Islamic teachings to parts of his philosophical apparatus has provided him with a positive view of Islam. Paying attention to the realm of the heart and emotion in the mystical wisdom of Islam has also been consistent with its principles in the critique of modern reason.

Understanding oneself has been of great importance in various areas of thought and discussed from different aspects. Some thinkers believe that self-understanding is intuitive and others consider it to be reflective and interpretative. In the history of western thought, especially in the areas of hermeneutics and phenomenology, Heidegger and Ricoeur are representative of these two different approaches. From this perspective we entitle their views as ontological and semantics. In this writing, we try to elaborate the ontological view point of Heidegger and the semantic approach of Ricoeur concerning the problem of self-understanding in order to pursue the possibility of any graft between them. For revealing the possibility of this graft, we focus on two aspects; We show that: 1- Self-understanding in Heidegger's and Ricoeur's thought be realized within the common horizons of "time", "language" and "the other", though, through different approaches of ontology and epistemology; and 2- For these three horizons in Ricoeur's definition of them, we can define an ontological foundation within the structure of  dasein.  It seem that this ontological basis can be considered to be at the beginning of Ricoeur's epistemological long route. In this regard, we can graft fundamentally these two approaches onto each other.

Banknotes are social and semantic texts with the power of visual impact, which governments have often used to achieve cultural and political hegemony. The main purpose of this paper is to analyze the relationship between the visual structure of dollar bills and the social context of the United States community and to examine how social developments in US history have affected changes in the structure of dollar bills. The social semiotics approach of Kress and Van Leeuwen is the basis of this descriptive-analytical study. The documentary and qualitative data of this research were collected by the purposive sampling method. According to this analysis results, the dollars represent only the face of white male politicians, and the most representation belongs to persons affiliated with the Republican Party. The common symbols and design of the dollars have changed little over the last century, indicating policymakers’ emphasis on building a stable picture of the country’s economic system. The framing of politicians’ images on old banknotes reflects their distance and distinction from their audiences, but in newer dollars, these frames have been deliberately removed to represent a sense of closeness to the people. This change represents that banknote illustrators are following the social developments.

From the perspective of phenomenology, this research considers the essence of education-Bildung and its different manifestations in the entire history of education. Relying on the first stage of phenomenology, we first turn our face away from the common, evident concept of Bildung. Then, via deconstruction, we will ask about historical phenomena and the nature of Bildung, which will eventually look at the common feature of Bildung or its essence from Heidegger’s perspective. Historically, none of Bildung’s phenomena are essentially the same. They are phenomenal possibilities in the history of education. Every one of the phenomena has the temporal disclosedness of education-Bildung hidden within it, however, none of them can take hold of its totality under their control. Here, the essence of education-Bildung, in its phenomenological expressions, will be deconstructed and in a negative Heidegger manner, we will show that none of these phenomena are the total essence of Bildung. Hence, the essence is embedded in the context of time, which is a kind of openness and caring, as well as the development of the human essence in the overall sense. The essence is both disclosed and hidden in Bildung’s manifold manifestations.

Understanding the process and conditions of the constitution of modern educational science during the cultural and social history of modern world has a key role in comprehending the nature of educational science, those mentalities and big ideas which govern it and its legacy for today's educational world. To reach that aim, this research studies the socio-cultural grounds of the formation and development of modern educational science by analyzing first-hand and second-hand historical resources about educational science and modern education across regions along the modern history, using historical-analytical method. Based on the findings of the research, six main grounds have been recognized as most effective in the formation of educational science and explained in detail and they are as follows: necessity of preparing new generation for the modern society and inefficiency of traditional institutions, educationalization of social problems, discovering childhood, psychologism (in education), schools and teacher training institutes and finally, the profession of teaching and professionalization of various educational occupations.

"Globalization" has transformed many of the key traditional concepts of politics. One of these concepts is "democracy". Given the changes that have taken place in the age of globalization, Held and Habermas have tried to replace the models of "cosmopolitan democracy" and "Deliberative democracy" with liberal democracy respectively. The purpose of this paper is to show the efforts of Habermas and Held to replace their proposed model with the model of liberal democracy. Habermas describes his proposed model of democracy by relying on the three systems of "government", "economy" and "the lifeword". But Held does this by rebuilding the current world order. The findings of this article indicate that the efforts of both thinkers to achieve the desired goal have not been successful. The main reason for this failure is the conservatism of Held's intellectual structure, and consequently desire to maintain the status quo on the one hand, and Habermas' overly optimistic view of consensus and rationalism on the other. This article is descriptive-analytical in terms of method and content, and the required data has been obtained through library methods.

The goal of this research is to identify various aspects of Iranian foreign policy through discourse analysis. For this purpose, two outstanding periods in contemporary Iranian history have been considered. Foreign policy of Mohammad Mossadegh from 1320 to 1332 and foreign policy of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi from 1342 to 1357.The main question of this research is based on the similarities and discrepancies of the discourses of Muhammad Mossadegh (1330- 1330) and Pahlavi II (1352-1357) regarding the West in Iranian foreign policy. The hypothesis is also arranged in this way: It seems that the discursive nodes in the discourses of the approach to the West in each of the periods of Mohammad Mossadegh (1330- 1330) and Pahlavi II (1357-1942), By establishing their meanings, led to the exclusion and marginalization of other possible discourses in Iran's foreign policy. Based on this: a) Similarity of the discourses is to marginalize other discourses. (B) The discovery of these discourses is that: 1. during the prime minister's time, Mossadegh's nationalist discourse, which was based on the approach of independence to the West, was the basis of his foreign policy. 2. Mohammad Reza Shah's globalization discourse, based on a policy of similarity to the West, formed

Occidentalism is a science that deals with the knowledge of the west. In this knowledge, the "West" is identified as the "other" so that after this knowledge, they can better manage and regulate their interaction with the West than before. Another cognition, due to the coexistence of man and existence, requires an interdisciplinary / transdisciplinary approach. Without an interdisciplinary / interdisciplinary approach, a comprehensive and accurate view of the West cannot be found. Thirteen disciplines have been considered in regional studies related to "Western studies" so far. The most important sciences are in the form of four central disciplines: "Language and Literature", "History", "Political Science", and "Anthropology". Interdisciplinary studies in this field are classified into two types of theoretical critical interdisciplinary. Significant bias is observed in the first species. Theoretical interdisciplinary is the latest type of study to examine the real world and current living societies. Sample-based studies and meetings with an interdisciplinary approach are the most important categories of these studies. This type can be considered as the most complete group of interdisciplinary researches on western studies.

The most important of the Socratic writings of Xenophon is his Memorabilia. The Xenophon’s Socratic writings involve that aspect of Socratic political philosophy in which he adverted to the trans-political way of life and insisted on the political education from its negative point of view. Xenophon, attempting to take human nature rather than mere nature as a main philosophical subject, affirms that political philosophy in its Socratic sense is ‘first philosophy’. The philosopher’s subject as an educator is human nature and morality and good and evil things, and human being as the only logos-based being is the only being who is opened to the whole. So the political philosopher as an educator, beginning with political way of life in its alive and immediate form, attempts to confront the pupil on the one hand with the limitations of that way of life and on the other with the limitations of reason for applying totally the rational rules in the political life. In this paper, putting forward the educational end of Xenophon’s Socratic writings, particularly his Memorabilia, we pave the way for understanding the philosophical thought of Xenophon as a Socratic political philosopher.

The hermeneutic of the self concept in Foucault’s workprovided a condition for a new form of his study, an analysisof the relationship between truth and the subject, and the development of knowledge into the mechanisms of self-care. For Foucault, the hermeneutics of the subject, unlike its traditional technologies, is not a simple form of an act of self-care to achieve some degree of moral excellence; rather, it formulates and processes the entire humanities system, modern literature, and related sciences. Here it is no longer an external coercion to reveal and interpret oneself, but a kind of morbid desire to empty the inner secrets as a text, and in the presence of the symbolic. This excessive and deviant longing for the symbolic, which targets passive articulation of the subject's desire, can be symptomatic as a pathological thing. In the present study, five clinical symptoms including introspection, narcissistic aspect, masochism, obsession and femininity of language were identified in Foucault's hermeneutics of the subject and within the framework of Freudian psychoanalytic principles. Symptoms that all have neurotic aspects and indicate that hermeneutics can be placed in the category of neuroses in the classification of desire disorders. A disorder whose fundamental characteristic is the defeat of the ego (unconsciousness) as the geometric location of the principle of pleasure, against the principle of reality and its external manifestations (culture, ethics, law, etc.).

Philosophical anthropology with reflection on human nature is one of the special fields of interest of Max Scheler. Influenced by idealism, philosophy of life, and Christianity, his phenomenological approach seeks to provide a comprehensive picture of man. To this end, Scheler pays attention to the real and experiential aspects of man along with his spiritual values ​​and by acknowledging their independence from each other and at the same time their interaction and connection. Influenced by the crisis of his time, Max Scheler, on the one hand, turned his attention to the neglected aspects of man, including emotions and feelings, especially love and hate, and on the other hand, while trying to provide a certain knowledge about man by avoiding essentialism, related matters. Examines human beings from a phenomenological point of view and based on how they are manifested. At the same time, while having philosophical affiliations, he also pays special attention to concrete and real human issues based on sociological concerns. Moreover, Scheler places great value on human diagnosis and of course he argues that man cannot be identified objectively and should only be approached on the basis of a phenomenological approach.