فصلنامه فضای جغرافیایی
پیاپی 72 (زمستان 1399)

A cities main structure is equal to its basement and makes it unique and different. Theoretical framework of studying urban structure is concentrated on the theory of urban morphology. Urban morphology is a systematic consideration of frame, shape, map, structure and functions of urban built texture and its origin and style of development, in pass of time. The theory of planning based on analyzing traditional cities, to obtain manufacturing process according to buildings and open areas classification, form their primary position to present changes, is call "space syntax". According to this fact that, a city reflects cultural developments, a citieschr('39') active history is considered based on what is built. The method of urban textures withdraw contains streets and blocks, and is the main tool of it. This method is a combination of German and Italian morphology classes, and is considered as an interior/ recognition approach. The main structure is an approach with holistic view to urban texture and takes its generality. This approach completes studies of urban texture and clears relationship between parts and their role in forming a whole. In this article, we propose to combine the study of urban structure development, with the theory of main structure, to obtain a holistic process. The outcome process can be used, in a part of city that has most of identities and characters of whole city through studying this part of city. We can obtain a general recognition of whole structural characters, of the cities.

Common borders between countries are as various interactive opportunities in relation to economic, political, cultural and social activities and affect the development of business interactions, employment creation, stability, security and prosperity and economic development between political systems. Borders have different types; land, sea, or combinatorial borders. compilation borders are areas that have blue shores, plain hinterland, and mountainous and forest areas. These areas can have the greatest benefits for the countries that hold it. The existence of a border zone with such natural and environmental features can have the power and capabilities of customs, border terminal, border market and railroads, and the ability to create a port for sea transport, exploitation of beaches in the field of coastal tourism, agro-exploitation and Garden and farm(animal husbandry) as well as mountain and forest tourism. The present research studies theoretical model of space development in compilation border regions. Therefore, a research is a theory which has been extracted and analyzed by using a questionnaire package based on library studies and then extracting the views of relevant experts. In the library section, resources such as books, magazines, articles and researches on regional and border development planning have been used. Data obtained from library studies have been evaluated by completing a questionnaire by experts and elites on the potential of compilation border regions. The results of the research show that the compilation nature of the coastal basin nature, with the backside plains and mountains, each of which has special potential, can be effective both in regional and national development.Such spaces, due to spatial diversity, have diverse potentialities for development, and in the event of expanding transnational interactions, they will enjoy a variety of functional economics.

Land surface temperature (LST) is the main factor in the energy balance of the Earth, and is used as input for climate and environmental changes models. In the past and even now, due to the lack or insufficient number meteorological stations, temperature has not been measured and recorded in many parts of the country, therefore, there is no accurate information on temperature changes in these regions. So there is a need for a method to measure this parameter that is fast and accurate as well as being the low cost and covering a wide area. Using remote sensing data due to its wide coverage, the availability of many images and rich archives is a good option for estimating this parameter. In this research, various methods for extracting land surface temperature including Mono-window, Artis and Stefan-Boltzman were investigated. In each method, emissivity was calculated from different ways, including NDVI, Classification and MODIS Product, and then entered into their equations. Landsat series including TM, ETM +, OLI and MODIS emissivity products were also used. To convert the surface temperature to  one and half meters height temperature, a precise environmental thermometer with a precision of 0.2 ° C and a linear relationship (air temperature= 0.44 × LST + 8.8) were used. Then, the results were tested using weather station data  via RMSE and t-test. The final results showed that the best method with RMSE 1.09 is using the ETM + image and the Stefan-Boltzman method, and the worst method with RMSE 2.64 is belonging to the use the MODIS image and the Mono-Window method. Therefore, it is recommended to use Stefan-Boltzman method for other regions which are geographically similar to this studied area.

The purpose of the present study was modeling villagers’ intention to adopt e-marketing and rural provincial clustering. The data was collected from 988 villages with ICT offices from 31 provinces of Iran. The results showed that the rate of agricultural income in villages with ICT offices was desirable but income of handicrafts and tourism was lower than the average. Also, rural access to city and ICT users were acceptable. In designing the research model, the “theory of planned behavior” (TPB) was developed. In this regard, a new factor called rural economic geography was added having five new variables such as rural access, rural tourism, agriculture, rural handicrafts, and population. Thus, the “Geographic Model of Planned Behavior” (GeoTPB) was presented. In the new model, the impact of geographic factor on behavioral factor was examined using structural equation modeling approach. In general, the rural economic geography had a direct impact (64%) on behavioral factors and in the next step, the behavioral factor (as full mediation) affected the intention. The Geographic Model of Planned Behavior predicted villagerschr('39') intention to e-marketing adoption up to 75%. In addition, the K-means clustering indicated that Iran rural regions can be placed in six clusters due to economical and behavioral factors. In most clusters, rural economic geography was effective on behavioral factor. The interesting finding was that Sistan and Baluchestan, Hormozgan, and Khuzestan provinces in cluster 1 were the leading regions in e-marketing adoptions. These regions were recorded as less-developed villages in the reports of the statistics center indicating that the development of technology was significantly effective on the digital literacy of the inhabitants of these regions. The findings emphasized the significance of considering behavioral factors in geographic studies to provide realistic solutions for rural development.

Evapotranspiration is one of the critical parameters in the planning and management of water resources, especially in the agricultural sector. In this study have been discussed to review the reference evapotranspiration from the perspective of main factors its aggravating, with an emphasis on pressure systems in the warm season over the period 2014 1985 in the South West of the country. For this purpose at first, reference evapotranspiration calculated and then correlation values with the parameters of temperature, radiation, humidity and wind were calculated and finally to review of pressure systems, the average data of sea level pressure, zonal and meridional wind from the June to August in the period of 1985 - 2014 provided and maps were drawn. The results show that the correlation maximum of the reference evapotranspiration with wind parameter obtained So that in more than half of the studied stations, correlation coefficient has been more than 0.90 and almost at all stations (except station in Bushehr and coastal Bushehr) was more than 0.80. Among the parameters, moisture in many stations has had negative correlation with evapotranspiration. The radiation parameter than temperature parameter the more positive correlation has experienced in most stations. Review of pressure systems summer at sea level pressure indicates that the interaction of the western tongues monsoon low pressure system and eastern tongues Azores subtropical high pressure on the East Mediterranean sea is as the main factor of pressure gradient on the Middle East, including the South West of the country. That resulted northwest prevailing wind flow from the eastern Mediterranean conduct to the study area. As well as the prevailing wind flow in the study area from June to August, has been the Northwest. Cause of Strengthen and increase the wind speed and the result has been an increase in evapotranspiration, which would be a serious risk, especially in enhancing crop water requirement is due to the limited available water.

Sand ramp is one of a kind of sand dunes which is visible on the slopes of some mountains of arid and semi-arid regions. These sediments are often carried by the wind and are deposited after encountering with local topographic barriers. Unlike desert sand dunes, which are created only by the wind process, fluvial and colluvial processes also play a large role in the formation and evolution of sand ramps. In according to, there are fluvial and colluvial sediments amongst sand ramps and grain size of sands are greater. Therefore, these landforms are more complex in terms of structure, processes, genesis, sediments and evolution than desert sand dunes. The main goal of the research is to investigate sand ramps genesis located on the slopes of Tange Chenar and Tange Hozaki Mountains in the around of Ernan Playa. These sand ramps located around the Tange Chenar River after Tange Caehnar Village in the Southern of Mehriz City in the Yazd province and also around the Yazd-Marvast road. After Sand ramp, there is Ernan plain and in the lowest altitude of the plain, Ernan Playa has located.

For doing the research, we have used topographic (1:50000), geologic (1:100000) and DEM (with 5 meter resolution) maps and field observations as well. In field observations, one of the large sand ramp of the area with 34 meters height was selected. It is located in the 54˚17´ 55" eastern longitude and 31˚ 23 ́ 6" northern latitude. From this case, 18 sedimentary samples were taken along the vertical and horizontal profiles. Also, three sediment samples were taken from one of the developing sand ramp at altitudes of 2400-2500 meters. To ensure the results of the work, a granite sample was taken from the area as well. Then. granolumetry, mineralogy and morphoscopy analysis were performed on them. In granolumetry analysis, grain size diameter were determined and displayed using normal and cumulative distribution graphs. In mineralogy, using XRD method, minerals of sediments were determined. Further, Thin section of a number of samples were provided and analyzed by polarizing microscope for observation many characteristics of minerals including volume, composition, weathering and sediments transport rates analyzed. In the morphoscopy test, sphericity and roundness of grains were analyzed using scanning transmission electron microscope.

Findings showed that the size of the sedimentary grains of the sand ramps are much larger than the sand dunes in arid and semi-arid region, so that the average of grains diameter were about 1 millimeter.Nevertheless, the analysis of vertical and horizontal profiles of the sand ramp sediments showed that they have sorted and transferred by winds alone. Even though, the volume of the very coarse sands is very high, but alluvial and colluvial deposits are not observed inside them. Mineralogical analysis of sand ramp sediments and granite stone as well showed that sand ramps sedimentary minerals correspond to the monzogranites of the eastern slopes of Shirkouh Mountain. In addition, the high volume of feldspar minerals and unweathered biotite and amphibole minerals suggest that sand ramps sediments are not far from their origins. Also, morphoscopy analysis suggest that Sediments are not rounded and have sharp angles. Therefore, they have not been transferred long distance by winds. Also, the surface of grains have not been eroded. However, the sand ramp sediments were not the same. Some have sharper angels. Others, however, show some roundness.

Results showed that the origin of the sand ramp sediments have been monzogranites in the eastern slopes of the Shirkouh Mountain. The granites have been weathered strongly in the preglacier condition of Pleistocene. Then, weathered sediments have been transferred by glacial lobe and fluvial processes to the base level, which had been Ernan Lake. After transition, they have deposited on the shore of the lake as well as on the Tange Chenar river bank. Further, these sediments have been moved by southeastern winds and after encountering with the mountains have ascended from windward slopes and created sand ramps. Because of intense winds or low altitude of the mountains, sometimes, they have descended from leeward. In that case, sand ramps are smaller with finer grains.

The growing population and the excessive and unconditional use of natural resources, especially in the soil, have caused many problems, most notably due to soil erosion and sediment production. To do this research, homogeneous unit maps were prepared using slope mapping, land use and geology maps. Each of the effective factors in erosion and parameters in the models were measured separately in each unit of operation, and finally, for each sub-area, the erosion and annual sediment production were calculated. Land use map was prepared using Landsat satellite ETM sensor images after classifying. Based on the results of this study, annual production sediment yield by MPSIAC method in the sub-basin of Unit A of the studied basin was 126.33 cubic meters per square kilometer, 6106 tons per hectare, in unit B sub-basin, respectively 74 cubic meters per cubic meter Kilometers square 167, 1804 t / ha and sub unit C were 150.36 m 3 / km, 9659 t / ha, respectively. The results of the comparison of erosion rates in determining the accuracy of the methods showed that the MPSIAC method is more suitable for estimating erosion and annual precipitation production in the natural and climatic conditions of the studied basin than the other two methods.

Evaluation of the agricultural water productivity is one of the essential indices to measure the efficiency and performance of management in irrigation systems that they have high agricultural water consumption and it is necessary to determine appropriate indices to conduct actual evaluation of this standard in a basin. In this regard, the use of actual evapotranspiration of agricultural products can be considered in calculating water productivity. To investigate this issue, the Sefidrood basin was selected as the study area and the actual evapotranspiration in addition of the irrigation water, was used to evaluate water productivity at the basin scale. For this evaluation, two indices were used: CPDIP (amount of product per unit of irrigation water and effective rainfall) and CPDET (amount of product per unit of actual evapotranspiration). The Comprehensive Water and Soil Assessment Model (SWAT) was used to estimate actual evapotranspiration and yield at the basin scale. For this purpose, at first the model was calibrated and validated using the SWAT-CUP tool according to the data of the hydrometric station at the basin level. The calculated R2 values for these two stages were between 0.61 to 0.75 and 0.51 to 0.72, respectively. Then the values of water productivity indices were calculated for the rice crop. According the results, the mean values of CPDIP and CPDET indices in the study period in the Sefidrood basin were 0.40 and 0.99 (kg /m3), respectively. As a result, the value of productivity index based on actual evapotranspiration is approximately 2.5 times of the value of index based on the irrigation water and effective rainfall. According to the findings in this study, CPDET is a suitable index to evaluate the agricultural water productivity at the basin scale; because it considers the repeated use of water percolation losses and surface water losses in the different sectors.

The study of air accidents recorded 2007-2016 for all variety of present aircraft shows that 29.2% of all aviation accidents occurred due to unfavorable climate. between the climatic elements, wind conditions have the greatest impact on the safety of airplanes, especially during takeoff and landing. So that unfavorable wind conditions for flying, the main cause or at least a contributing factor in 47% of all aviation accidents related to climate. Also the contribution of various wind conditions in aviation accidents caused by this element are respectively: crosswind: 55%, tailwind: 22%, gusty wind(Sudden change in wind speed): 8%, wind shear(Sudden change in wind direction and speed): 8%, variable wind(Sudden change in wind direction): 5% and dust devil or whirl wind: 2%. generally, it can be said that various climatic elements have impact on aviation safety, and between these elements the greatest impact is the wind conditions and in particular the crosswind effects on aviation safety. As a result of changes in winds, it can be considered a hazard to the aircraft and it can increase the status of the aircraft in-flight loss of balance. As we know, runways are made in the prevailing wind direction of the area; as a result, a change in the prevailing wind direction of an airport can increase the amount of crosswind relative to the runway, thereby negatively affecting during takeoff and landing. Therefore, the impact of change on wind conditions and in particular on the direction or speed of prevailing winds are important and in this study the impact of their changes at the usability factor of the current runway of Tabriz airport, is discussed.

One of the main issues in regional planning and development is land use change by human activities. It can be argued that human actions can lead to significant changes in current state of earth’s surface. Changes in surface cover (land cover change) may in turn lead to alternations in balance of energy, water, and geochemical fluctuations at local, regional or global levels. Land use mapping using remote-sensing data is one of the newest and most widely used methods for the provision of land use map, and making a comparison between the existent usages.Therefore, Considering the benefits and potentials of satellite data, this technology can be of great help in identifying and detecting these changes.

Processing satellite images and performing supervised classification helps to extract information from these images. This study was carried out for assess changes in  land-use from 1999 to 2019 in the Qazvin plan’s Aquifer. Qazvin plan’s Aquifer is located at the North West part of Iran and the Qazvin province. The land uses observed in visit the area included: 1-irrigated agricultural lands, 2-residential and industrial areas, 3-rangelands, 4-dry and abandoned lands and 5-salt-marsh and barren lands. In this study, ENVI 5.3 software was used for processing five selected imageries in this project (1999,2004,2009,2014 and 2019).For this purpose, Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (1999, 2004, and 2009) and Landsat-8 Operation Land Imager Sensor (2014, and 2019) satellite images were used for the land use change analysis with 30-m spatial resolution, which were taken from the United States Geological Survey (USGS; https://glovis.usgs.gov/), and after correcting geometric and radiometric in the pre-processing stage, Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC) algorithm as a supervised classification method has been used to identify and detect land use changes. Also, The overall accuracy test used to determine the accuracy of produced maps.

Detection of land use change is one of the most important applications of remote sensing data. The ability to periodically repeat over time, this data can be used to identify and investigate variable and dynamic phenomena in the environment. Different land use classes had been recognized and used as the base map. The result showed that, the area of rangeland lands has decreased from 1999 to 2019 and other uses have increased. so that the area of irrigated agricultural lands, residential and industrial areas, dry and abandoned lands and salt-marsh and barren lands have increased by 14.24%, 38.8%, 25.37% and 8.37%, respectively, but rangelands decreased by 21.16%. Overall accuracy and Kappa statistics were extracted from the error matrix. supervised classification accuracy for the 5 different time frames (1999,2004,2009,2014 and 2019) found from accuracy assessment showed that the highest accuracy was found for 2019 supervised classification (96.28% accuracy). Kappa value is also used to check accuracy in classification and having a Kappa value (0.81–1.00) denotes almost perfect match between the classified and referenced data. The Kappa coefficient for land use in 1999, 2004, 2009, 2014 and 2019 were 87%, 86%, 91%, 89%, and 94%, respectively. Also,The results showed that the extraction of adequate samples from different classes of land use would increase the possibility of correct distinction of image pixels received from the satellite and accurate extraction of land use classes. Thus, obtaining accurate results from the classification of images via the maximum likelihood method is depending on adequate and appropriate training samples.

The present study confirm that remote sensing is an important technology for extracting land use maps and detecting land use changes. Changes detection is made possible by this technology in less time and with better accuracy. Land use changes is one of the most important factors of environmental changes. Such changes is often the result of human intervention, in addition to the negative effects on the environment, will increase the damage to natural disasters. The quantification of land use changes is very useful for environmental management groups, policy makers and for public to better understand the surrounding. Hence, the researchers emphasize the need for the planning to managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes.