فهرست مطالب

نشریه علوم باغبانی
سال سی و پنجم شماره 2 (پیاپی 50، تابستان 1400)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1400/05/17
  • تعداد عناوین: 10
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  • ساناز خضرلو، بابک عبدالهی مندولکانی* صفحات 169-182

    شکل میوه از صفات بسیار مهم و موثر در کیفیت گوجه فرنگی (Solanum lycopersicum L.) بوده و ژن های SUNو OVATE از ژن های کلیدی کنترل کننده طول میوه می باشند. به منظور شناسایی SNPها (Single nucleotide polymorphism) در این ژن ها، قطعاتی از نواحی کد کننده آنها در 96 ژنوتیپ گوجه فرنگی تکثیر و با آنزیم های محدود کننده TruI وPstI هضم شد. هضم قطعات تکثیری این دو ژن در ژنوتیپ ها چندشکلی تولید نکرد بنابراین چهار ژنوتیپ از جمعیت های مختلف انتخاب و قطعه تکثیری ژن ها در این ژنوتیپ ها توالی یابی شد. همردیفی توالی ها برای شناسایی SNPها با استفاده از نرم افزار Clustal Omega انجام گرفت. توالی یابی قطعه تکثیری ژن SUN منجر به شناسایی یک ناحیه اینترونی به طول 369 جفت باز شد. بر اساس نتایج، در ژن SUN ده SNP شناسایی شد. از کل SNPهای شناسایی شده در این ژن، 80 درصد آنها از نوع همجنس و 20 درصد آنها از نوع غیرهمجنس بود. در ژن OVATE پنج SNP شناسایی شد که 80 درصد آنها از نوع همجنس و 20 درصد آنها از نوع غیرهمجنس بود. میانگین تعداد SNPها به ازای هر 100 جفت باز در نواحی اگزونی و اینترونی ژن SUN به ترتیب 9/0 و 62/1 بود. در ژن OVATE به ازای هر 100 جفت باز نیمSNP در ناحیه اگزونی شناسایی شد. با توجه به نقش مهم کیفیت میوه بخصوص شکل آن در بازارپسندی گوجه فرنگی، SNPهای شناسایی شده در این تحقیق می تواند در برنامه های اصلاحی گوجه فرنگی برای مطالعه تنوع ژنتیکی، تهیه نقشه های ژنتیکی و شناسایی نشانگرهای عملکردی مرتبط با شکل میوه مورد استفاده قرار گیرد.

    کلیدواژگان: تنوع تک نوکلئوتیدی، جهش های همجنس، شکل میوه، گوجه فرنگی
  • اکرم امیری، محمود شور*، مینا تقی زاده، سید حسین نعمتی، علی تهرانی فر صفحات 183-194

    بنفشه آفریقایی (Wendl. Saintpaulia ionantha) یک گیاه زینتی مشهور با شکل و رنگ‌های متنوع است و به عنوان یک گیاه مدل عالی جهت مطالعات باززایی در شرایط درون شیشه‌ای مطرح می‌باشد. این پژوهش با هدف القاء پلی پلوییدی در شرایط درون شیشه‌ای و با استفاده از غلظت‌های مختلف کلشی‌سین انجام گرفت. گیاهچه‌های حاصل از کشت درون شیشه‌ای در مرحله پرآوری تحت تیمار کلشی‌سین قرار گرفتند. آزمایش به صورت فاکتوریل در قالب طرح کاملا تصادفی با دو فاکتور غلظت در سه سطح 02/0، 05/0 و 1/0 درصد و مدت زمان تیمار در سه سطح 18، 24 و 48 ساعت انجام گرفت. صفات ظاهری و آناتومیکی گیاهچه های باززایی شده مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. القای تتراپلوییدی به گونه ای موفقیت آمیز توسط بررسی صفات مختلف ظاهری و بررسی‌های میکروسکوپی و فلوسایتومتری تایید شد. تیمار 02/0 درصد کلشی‌سین به مدت 24 ساعت در القای پلی‌پلوییدی در بنفشه آفریقایی تحت شرایط درون شیشه ای موثر بود. همچنین نتایج این مطالعه نشان داد که تلفیق روش کشت درون شیشه ای با القای تتراپلوییدی به عنوان یک روش سریع و کارآمد برای بدست آوردن اشکال و صفات جدید در گیاهان باززایی شده درون شیشه ای بنفشه آفریقایی می تواند مورد استفاده قرار گیرد.

    کلیدواژگان: باززایی، فلوسایتومتری، کلشی سین، میکسوپلوئید
  • نسرین شهابی، علیرضا ابدالی مشهدی*، محمدحسین قرینه، امین لطفی جلال آبادی صفحات 195-208

    در شرایط نامناسب محیطی با ایجاد میکروکلیما امکان افزایش عملکرد وجود دارد؛ در این راستا در شرایط خاک شور و سدیمی و کم‌آبیاری آزمایشی در سال زراعی 96-1395 در شمال شرقی اهواز به‌صورت فاکتوریل در قالب طرح پایه بلوک‌های کامل تصادفی با سه تکرار انجام شد. تیمارها شامل جهت جغرافیایی کاشت (شاهد (کاشت مسطح غیر خطی) وکاشت در جوی در جهت‌های شمالی- جنوبی، شرقی- غربی، شمال شرقی- جنوب غربی، شمال غربی- جنوب شرقی) و توده‌های بابونه (اهواز، اصفهان و شیراز) بود. بالاترین تعداد گل در بوته (5/78) و عملکرد گل خشک (126 گرم در متر مربع) در جهت کاشت شمال- جنوب و بیش‌ترین عملکرد بیولوژیک (417 گرم در متر مربع) در جهت کاشت شمال غربی- جنوب شرقی در تیمار توده اصفهان به‌دست آمد. بالاترین درصد اسانس (06/1 درصد) در توده اصفهان در جهت شرق- غرب مشاهده شد. کم‌ترین (14/3 کیلوگرم در هکتار) و بالاترین (1/10 کیلوگرم در هکتار) عملکرد اسانس در توده اصفهان و به ترتیب در کاشت مسطح غیر خطی و جهت شرق- غرب مشاهده شد که 221 درصد افزایش را نشان داد. بالاترین درصد کامازولن در توده اهواز (شمال- جنوب)، بی‌فارنسن در توده شیراز (جنوب غربی- شمال شرقی) و آلفا-بیسابولون اکساید آ در توده اصفهان (شمال- جنوب) به‌دست آمد. کم‌ترین ضریب استهلاک نوری (50/0) در کشت مسطح مشاهده شد. به‌طور کلی کاشت ردیفی در جوی و در جهت جغرافیایی مناسب می‌تواند یک روش بسیار کم هزینه برای افزایش محصول باشد.

    کلیدواژگان: ضریب استهلاک نوری، عملکرد اسانس، کامازولن، گیاه دارویی
  • فرنوش ملکشاهی، علی اشرف مهرابی اولادی*، الهه توکل، خسرو مهدی خانلو، وحید شریعتی صفحات 209-221

    ژنتیک گیاه دارای نقش مهم در تعیین نوع و میزان متابولیت‌های ثانویه در گیاهان دارویی می‌باشد و بر همین اساس همواره شناخت گونه‌ها و ارقام دارای توانمندی ژنتیکی بالا در تولید متابولیت‌های دلخواه در صدر برنامه‌های اصلاحی گیاهان دارویی قرار دارد. تحقیق حاضر با هدف بررسی تغییرات پروفایل شیمیایی اسانس دو ژنوتیپ با کد بذر 278 و 296 گیاه ریحان گونه گراتیسیموم (Ocimum gratissimum L.) طی فصل‌های بهار و پاییز سال 1398، در مزرعه تحقیقاتی دانشکده کشاورزی دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز در قالب طرح کرت های خرد شده در زمان انجام شد. بخش هوایی گیاهان در زمان‌های فوق در مرحله تمام گل برداشت و در سایه و دمای محیط خشک شدند. اسانس گیاهان خشک شده به روش تقطیر با آب و دستگاه کلونجر استخراج و کمیت و کیفیت اجزای اسانس گیاه با دستگاه GC-MS مورد آنالیز قرار گرفت. بر اساس نتایج آنالیز کیفی اسانس، 50 ترکیب مختلف در اسانس ژنوتیپ‌های 278 و 296گیاه دارویی ریحان گراتیسیموم شناسایی شد. بیش از 98 درصد ترکیبات شناسایی شده در اسانس این دو ژنوتیپ در پنج کلاس شیمیایی شامل مونوترپن های هیدروکربنه و اکسیژن‌دار و سزکویی‌ترپن‌های هیدروکربنه و اکسیژن‌دار و فنیل پروپانوییدها قرار داشتند. تیمول جزء غالب اسانس ژنوتیپ 278 در ماه های خرداد (48/35 درصد) و آبان (85/45 درصد) بود، ترکیب گاما ترپینن در ژنوتیپ 278 از 15/13 درصد در خرداد ماه به 80/25 درصد در آبان ماه، افزایش یافت. تیمول در اسانس ژنوتیپ 296 وجود نداشت و ترکیب دی‌هیدرواوژنول که به کلاس شیمیایی فنیل پروپانوییدها تعلق دارد، به عنوان ترکیب اصلی اسانس ژنوتیپ 296 گیاه ریحان گراتیسیموم شناخته شد و مقدار آن در دو برداشت تغییر معنی‌داری نداشت. در مجموع، با توجه به اجزای اصلی اسانس دو ژنوتیپ و رشد مناسب آن ها بصورت چندساله و امکان چندین برداشت در طول سال، تحقیقات بیشتر جهت کشت آنها در سطح وسیع در شرایط استان خوزستان توصیه می شود.

    کلیدواژگان: اسانس، اوژنول، تیمول، ریحان، ژنوتیپ
  • عطیه عبدلی، جواد رمضانی مقدم*، یاسر حسینی، محمدرضا نیک پور، هادی دهقان صفحات 223-234

    از مهم ترین مشکلات در اراضی تحت کشت ایران می توان به وضعیت نامناسب کیفی و کمی منابع آب در سطح کشور اشاره کرد. در این تحقیق، اثر مقادیر مختلف شوری آب آبیاری بر عملکرد و خصوصیات ریشه گوجه فرنگی با مدیریت های مختلف زمان آبیاری در شهرستان اردبیل مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. تیمارهای آزمایش شامل شوری آب آبیاری (در چهار سطح 5/1، 5/2، 4 و 7 دسی زیمنس بر متر) و زمان اعمال آبیاری (آبیاری در سه زمان، به ترتیب 40، 50 و 65 درصد تخلیه مجاز رطوبتی) در چهار تکرار اجرا شدند. نتایج این تحقیق نشان داد شوری آب آبیاری دارای اثر معنی دار (p <0.01) بر وزن، قطر و حجم ریشه، میزان تبخیر و تعرق، زه آب خروجی و عملکرد گوجه فرنگی می باشد. همچنین تیمارهای شوری آب آبیاری 5/2 و 7 دسی‌زیمنس بر متر دارای بیشنه و کمینه عملکرد گوجه فرنگی به ترتیب برابر 9/114 و 58/37 گرم بودند. از طرفی، افزایش شوری آب آبیاری از 5/1 به 5/2 دسی زیمنس بر متر و افزایش تخلیه مجاز رطوبتی از 40 به 50 درصد تفاوت معنی داری بر عملکرد گوجه فرنگی نداشت. به طور کلی نتایج این مطالعه نشان داد استفاده از آب های دارای شوری قابل قبول، می تواند یکی از راهکارهای جبران و کاهش مشکلات منابع آب موجود باشد، که البته این امر باید با رعایت مدیریت شوری و آبشویی خاک همراه باشد.

    کلیدواژگان: تخلیه مجاز رطوبتی، تنش رطوبتی، کارآیی مصرف آب، کیفیت آب
  • سید محمدباقر رضوی نیا، نسیبه پورقاسمیان*، فرزاد نجفی صفحات 235-251

    آلودگی خاک به فلزات سنگین به دلیل خطرات زیست محیطی که برای سلامت انسان دارد، در سال های اخیر مورد توجه بسیاری از محققین قرار گرفته است. به منظور بررسی واکنش های زیستی گیاه دارویی بادرنجبویه (Melissa officinalis) در شرایط تنش کادمیم و سرب، این مطالعه در طرح فاکتوریل و در قالب بلوک کامل تصادفی با چهار تکرار در شرایط گلخانه ای انجام شد. کادمیم در چهار سطح (صفر، 6، 12 و 24 میلی گرم کادمیم در کیلوگرم خاک) به عنوان فاکتور اول و سرب در چهار سطح (صفر، 150، 300 و 450 میلی گرم سرب در کیلوگرم خاک) به عنوان فاکتور دوم در نظر گرفته شد. نتایج نشان داد با افزایش غلظت کادمیم و سرب وزن خشک اندام هوایی و ریشه، میزان پروتئین، میزان فتوسنتز، سرعت تعرق و کارایی فلورسانس کلروفیل کاهش معنی دار یافت، با این وجود، این کاهش در حضور کادمیم بیش از سرب مشاهده شد. اثر متقابل دو عنصر نیز صفات مذکور را کاهش داد. همچنین میزان مالون دی آلدهید، درصد اسانس و پرولین با افزایش غلظت هر دو عنصر در محیط افزایش یافت. با اینحال اثر متقابل دو عنصر بر صفات مذکور نشان داد که همراهی دو عنصر با یکدیگر باعث کاهش اثر منفی هر یک از عناصر به تنهایی می شود. افزایش غلظت هریک از عناصر کادمیم و سرب به تنهایی غلظت همان عنصر را در بخش هوایی و ریشه به طور معنی داری افزایش داد و این مسئله بیانگر رابطه مستقیم بین مقدار فلز در محیط و جذب آن توسط گیاه است. غلظت کادمیم در بخش هوایی و ریشه در بالاترین سطح کادمیم (24 میلی گرم بر کیلوگرم خاک) ، به ترتیب 96/1و 98/0(میکروگرم بر گرم وزن خشک) گزارش شد. غلظت سرب در بخش هوایی و ریشه در بالاترین سطح آن (450 میلی گرم برکیلوگرم خاک) به ترتیب 55/3 و 02/2 (میکروگرم بر گرم وزن خشک) گزارش شد. همچنین اثر متقابل دو عنصر نشان داد که افزایش کادمیم در محیط باعث کاهش غلظت سرب در گیاه شد و افزایش غلظت سرب در محیط باعث کاهش غلظت کادمیم در گیاه شد. هیچ یک از دو عنصر سرب و کادمیم در اسانس این گیاه مشاهده نشد. همچنین در سطوح 12 و 24 میلی گرم کادمیم در کیلوگرم خاک (سطوح بالای کادمیم)، افزایش غلظت سرب از 150 به 450 میلی گرم، فاکتور انتقال کادمیم را 97/6 و 26/11 درصد افزایش داد. از مطالعه حاضر می توان دریافت که به طور کلی، گیاه از کادمیم بیشتر از سرب آسیب دیده و اثر بازدارندگی کادمیم و سرب روی یکدیگر تقریبا در تمام صفات مشاهده شد، همچنین با توجه به عدم حضور عناصر در اسانس، شاید بتوان گیاه بادرنجبویه را به عنوان گزینه مناسبی جهت کشت در مناطق آلوده معرفی نمود.

    کلیدواژگان: اسانس، پرولین و پروتئین، فلورسانس کلروفیل، سرعت تنفس
  • محمد سادات فریزنی*، حمیدرضا خزاعی، غلامعلی گزانچیان صفحات 253-266

    تحقیق حاضر، با هدف بررسی اثر نسبت های اختلاط کمپوست زباله شهری با خاک بر برخی خصوصیات فیزیولوژیکی چمن گونه بومی تال فسکیو (Festucaarundinaceous) در پاسخ به تنش خشکی در قالب دو آزمایش در گلخانه تحقیقاتی دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد انجام گردید. در آزمایش اول، بررسی درصد و سرعت سبز شدن چمن در قالب طرح کاملا تصادفی با چهار تکرار صورت پذیرفت که در آن تیمارهای آزمایش شامل ده مقدار مختلف اختلاط کمپوست با خاک (10 تا 100 تن در هکتار) و تیمار شاهد (خاک زراعی بدون اختلاط با کمپوست) بود. در آزمایش دوم، سه مقدار برتر کمپوست از آزمایش اول به همراه شاهد بعنوان فاکتور اول و سه سطح تنش رطوبتی 25، 50 و 100 درصد ظرفیت زراعی به ترتیب بعنوان تنش های شدید و ملایم و عدم تنش، بعنوان فاکتور دوم در نظر گرفته شدند که بصورت فاکتوریل و در قالب طرح کاملا تصادفی در چهار تکرار مورد مقایسه قرار گرفتند. نتایج آزمایش اول نشان داد که مقادیر 70، 80 و 90 تن درهکتار بواسطه داشتن ظرفیت نگهداری آب بالاتر، سبب افزایش معنی دار درصد و سرعت سبز شدن چمن شدند. در آزمایش دوم، با افزایش شدت تنش خشکی در مقادیر مختلف کمپوست، میزان کلروفیل کل کاهش و صفات محتوی نسبی آب گیاه، پرولین و نشت الکترولیت ها افزایش پیدا کردند. در تیمار کمپوست 90 تن درهکتار به دلیل توانایی بالای آن در ذخیره آب، انسجام غشاءهای سلولی بیشتر حفظ شد و درک کمتری از تنش صورت گرفت. وزن خشک اندام هوایی نیز تحت تاثیر افزایش شدت تنش خشکی بطور معنی‌داری کاهش یافت. در مجموع به نظر می رسد که کاربرد 90 تن کمپوست در هکتار بطور معنی داری در بهبود تحمل به خشکی چمن تال فسکیو موثر باشد.

    کلیدواژگان: چمن، خشکی، کلروفیل و نشت الکترولیت ها
  • آسیه صفری، اکرم فاطمی*، محسن سعیدی، زهرا کلاهچی صفحات 267-281

    انگور (Vitis vinifera) یکی از مهمترین محصولات باغی در دنیا و ایران به شمار می رود. خشکسالی یکی از مهمترین عوامل محدود کننده رشد گیاه و تولیدات کشاورزی در سراسر جهان بخصوص در مناطق خشک و نیمه خشک است. کاربرد کودهای آلی و شیمیایی به عنوان بهبود دهنده ویژگی های خاک یکی از راهکارهای کاهش اثرات تنش خشکی می باشد. به منظور بررسی اثر کاربرد کمپوست، بایوچار و سولفات پتاسیم بر وزن خشک برگ، محتوای رطوبت نسبی برگ، کلروفیل a،b، کل،کاروتنویید و عناصر برگ انگور رقم بیدانه قرمز در شرایط بدون تنش خشکی (در حد ظرفیت زراعی) و تنش خشکی (40 درصد ظرفیت زراعی) پژوهشی به صورت فاکتوریل در قالب طرح بلوک های کامل تصادفی در چهار تکرار در سال1396 در دانشگاه رازی (کرمانشاه) انجام شد. نتایج این پژوهش نشان داد وزن خشک برگ انگور برای تیمارهای کودی سولفات پتاسیم، کمپوست و بایوچار به ترتیب 7/3، 6/3 و 5/3 گرم به دست آمد. محتوی رطوبت نسبی، غلظت کلروفیل a وکارتنویید برگ بین تیمارهای کودی اختلاف معنی داری نداشت. افزایش نسبت کلروفیل a به b، 95/2، 30/3 و 02/7 درصد به ترتیب در تیمارهای بایوچار، سولفات پتاسیم و کمپوست در مقایسه با تیمار شاهد تغییر کرد. در شرایط تنش خشکی با کاربرد بایوچار در مقایسه با کمپوست و سولفات پتاسیم، غلظت فسفر، پتاسیم، منیزیم و مس برگ انگور به طور معنی‌داری بیشتر بوده در نتیجه نسبت کروفیل a به b و وزن خشک برگ انگور در مقایسه با شرایط بدون کاربرد کود بهبود یافت. براساس یافته های این پژوهش برای کاهش اثرات منفی تنش خشکی بر ویژگی های بیوشیمیایی و وزن خشک برگ انگور، کاربرد بایوچار سپس سولفات پتاسیم و کمپوست در گزینه های بعد توصیه می شود.

    کلیدواژگان: بایوچار، سولفات پتاسیم، کمپوست، کلروفیل، کاروتنوئید
  • محبوبه زمانی پور صفحات 283-300

    ویتامین‌ها از مواد طبیعی ساخته شده اند و به‌منظور رشد، عملکرد و بهبود سطح تغذیه گیاهان مناسب هستند. هدف از این مطالعه، بررسی اثرات سطوح مختلف پیرودکسین (50، 100 و 150 میلی گرم بر لیتر)، تیامین (50، 100 و 150 میلی‌گرم بر لیتر)، اسید فولیک (50، 100 و 150 میلی‌گرم بر لیتر)، و ترکیب این ویتامین‌ها بر روی رشد، عملکرد و ویژگی‌های شیمیایی گیاه گوجه فرنگی . این پژوهش در قالب طرح بلوک‌های کامل تصادفی در سه تکرار در گلخانه دانشگاه ولایت ایرانشهر طی سال‌های 1398 تا 1399 اجرا شد. نتایج نشان دادند که تمامی غلظت‌های پیرودکسین، تیامین و اسید فولیک به کار برده شده سبب افزایش پارامترهای رشدی نسبت به شاهد شدند، و بیشترین ارتفاع گیاه (271 سانتی‌متر)، قطر ساقه (7 سانتی‌متر)، تعداد برگ (31 عدد)، وزن تر (502 گرم) و خشک گیاه (66/341 گرم) در غلظت 100 میلی گرم بر لیتر پیرودکسین+ 100 میلی گرم بر لیتر تیامین+ 100 میلی گرم بر لیتر اسید فولیک ایجاد شد. روابط متقابل سطوح ویتامین‌های B در سطوح کم، متوسط و زیاد اثر معنی‌داری بر پارامترهای زایشی گیاه گوجه فرنگی داشت، به‌طوری‌که بیشترین تعداد گل (33/41)، تعداد میوه (55/29)، تعداد خوشه (77/9)، قطر میوه (44/22 میلی‌متر)، وزن تر میوه (158 گرم)، وزن خشک میوه (81/10 گرم) و عملکرد (9667/5688 گرم در بوته) در غلظت 100 میلی‌گرم بر لیتر پیرودکسین، 100 میلی‌گرم بر لیتر تیامین و 100 میلی‌گرم بر لیتر اسید فولیک مشاهده شد. هم چنین، تمامی غلظت‌های به کار برده شده پیرودکسین، تیامین و اسید فولیک سبب افزایش پارامترهای بیوشیمیایی نسبت به شاهد شدند. بیشترین میزان pH (78/4)، اسیدیته (28/0 درصد)، مواد جامد محلول (93/3 درصد)، لیکوپن (64/2 میلی گرم در 100 گرم وزن تر)، محتوای فنول کل (66/66 میلی گرم در 100 گرم وزن تر)، ویتامین ث (36/13 میلی گرم بر 100 گرم وزن تر)، کلروفیل a (98/1 میلی گرم بر گرم وزن تر)، کلروفیل b (98/0 میلی گرم بر گرم وزن تر) و کارتنویید (33/3 میلی گرم بر گرم وزن تر) با کاربرد ترکیب 100 میلی گرم بر لیتر پیرودکسین، 100 میلی گرم بر لیتر تیامین و 100 میلی گرم بر لیتر اسید فولیک به‌دست آمد.

    کلیدواژگان: تغذیه، رشد، عملکرد، گوجه فرنگی، ویتامین
  • سجاد حیدری*، سعید ریزی، سید نجم الدین مرتضوی، علی نیک بخت صفحات 301-311

    لیلیوم یکی از زیباترین و مشهورترین گیاهان زینتی پیازی است که به خانواده سوسنی ها تعلق دارد. به منظور بررسی تاثیر رقم و حذف غنچه بر تکثیر پیاز لیلیوم، آزمایشی به صورت فاکتوریل در قالب طرح کاملا تصادفی با دو رقم (’Tiber‘ و ’Donato‘)، سه سطح حذف غنچه (عدم حذف، حذف در مرحله رویت غنچه و حذف در مرحله سه سانتی متری طول غنچه) در سه تکرار طراحی شد. نتایج نشان داد که رقم و حذف غنچه تمام صفات مورد ارزیابی (به جز قطر ساقه) را به طور معنی داری تحت تاثیر قرار داد. همچنین، برهمکنش دو تیمار تاثیر معنی داری بر وزن پیاز، تعداد پیازچه، ضریب تکثیر، اندازه پیاز و اندازه فلس داشت. در رقم ’Tiber‘بیش ترین وزن پیاز، اندازه پیاز و اندازه فلس با حذف غنچه در مرحله رویت حاصل شد که نسبت به تیمار عدم حذف همین رقم به ترتیب 5/93، 0/24 و 9/53 درصد افزایش نشان داد. علاوه براین، در رقم ’Donato‘، حذف غنچه در مرحله رویت غنچه صفات وزن پیاز، اندازه پیاز و اندازه فلس را به طور معنی داری (به ترتیب 4/89، 8/22 و 5/31 درصد) نسبت به عدم حذف غنچه افزایش داد. علاوه بر این، بیش‌ترین تعداد پیازچه و ضریب تکثیر در رقم ’Donato‘با اعمال تیمار حذف غنچه در مرحله سه سانتی متری حاصل شد که نسبت به تیمار عدم حذف غنچه در همین رقم، به ترتیب 3/58 و 0/7 درصد افزایش نشان داد. به طور کلی می توان نتیجه گرفت که رقم ’Donato‘در اغلب صفات مورد ارزیابی برتری محسوسی نسبت به رقم ’Tiber‘دارد و حذف غنچه در مرحله رویت به شرط عدم آسیب به انتهای شاخه، مناسب ترین تیمار جهت کشت مجدد، تولید و تکثیر پیاز لیلیوم می باشد.

    کلیدواژگان: پیازچه، تولید، سوسن، فلس، واریته
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  • Sanaz Khezerloo, B. Abdollahi Mandoulakani Pages 169-182
    Introduction

     Commercial tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), one of the most widely grown vegetable crops worldwide, belongs to the Solanaceae family. The marketability of the commercial tomato mostly depends on the fruit quality. Tomato fruit quality is determined mainly by color, texture, shape and flavor. Fruit shape, one of the important traits affecting the quality of tomato fruit, is controlled by multiple minor genes and quantitatively inherited. Two important genes, involved in fruit shape, are SUN and OVATE genes. The SUN gene, which is a member of the IQD (IQ-domain) gene family and the Calmodulin binding protein, controls fruit length. The more expression of both SUN and OVATE genes leads to increased fruit length. Moreover, the increased expression of OVATE gene reduces the size of flower and leaf components. Due to the important role of these genes in tomato fruit shape, identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) as a new generation of robust, frequent and reliable bi-allelic markers, in the coding regions of these genes might be necessary for generating functional markers associated with fruit shape.

    Materials and Methods

     Seeds of 96 tomato genotypes from 12 populations were grown in the research greenhouse of Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources of Urmia University. The genotypes had been collected from different regions of West Azerbaijan of Iran and Turkey (Iğdır). The young and green plant leaves were used for genomic DNA extraction. The quality and quantity of the extracted DNA was assessed using spectrophotometry and agarose gel electrophoresis. To identify SNPs in SUN and OVATE genes, specific primers were designed by using FastPCR and Gene Runner software for amplifying fragments from coding regions of these genes in 96 tomato genotypes. Then, the amplified fragments of both genes were digested by using restriction enzymes TruI and PstI. Due to the lack of polymorphism in the digested patterns obtained by the used enzymes, four individuals from populations with close geographical distance were selected and amplified. The amplified bands were then purified by a purification kit (Kiagen, USA) and sequenced (Bioneer, South Korea). Sequencing was performed from both ends of the PCR fragments using both the forward and reverse primers used in the PCR reactions. The exon and intron regions of the sequenced fragments were identified by Softberry software. Following the retrieval of the sequenced fragments of each gene using FastPCR and Softberry software, multiple sequence alignment using Clustal Omega was used to identify SNPs in the exon and intron of the genes.

    Results and Discussion

     Digestion of the amplified fragments of the genes using TruI and PstI restriction enzymes produced no polymorphism in the studied genotypes. Thus, four individuals were selected from geographically different populations and gene fragments were amplified, purified and sequenced in these genotypes. Sequencing of the amplified fragment of SUN gene revealed an intron region with a size of 369 bp. Out of the 10 SNPs detected in the SUN gene, four was found in the exon region, while the number of SNPs in intron was six. Of the total SNPs found in the SUN gene, the percentage of transition and transversion substitutions was 80 (50% T/C and 30% A/G) and 20 (T/G), respectively. In the OVATE gene, five SNPs were identified. The percentage of transition (40% G/A and 40% C/T) and transversion (20% G/T) substitutions in this genes were the same as SUN. The ratio of transition to transversion substitutions was 1:4 for both genes. The average number of SNPs in a 100 bp fragment in exonic and itronic region of SUN was 0.9 and 1.62, respectively, while it was 0.5 for exonic region of OVATE gene.

    Conclusion

     The results of the current study revealed low polymorphisms and point mutations in the exon regions of SUN and OVATE genes, suggesting that the coding regions of these genes were conserved during the tomato evolution. Also, the number of SNPs in intron was more than those of exon. Considering the important role of fruit quality, especially fruit shape, in tomato market, the SNPs found in the current study may be used in genetic diversity studies, genetic map preparation, and saturation and identification of the functional markers associated with tomato fruit shape. These markers could accelerate tomato breeding programs aimed fruit shape improvement.

    Keywords: Fruit shape, Single nucleotide polymorphism, Tomato, Transition substitution
  • Akram Amiri, Mahmoud Shour*, Mina Taghizadeh, Seyyed Hosein Nemati, Ali Tehranifar Pages 183-194
    Introduction

    The genus of African violet is the most common genus known among the plants of Gesneriaceae family. This genus has beautiful leaves and flowers that are zygomorph. African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha) is a famous ornamental plant due to its various colors and shapes that an excellent model system for in vitro regeneration studies because of its tissue culture amenability.Besides the importance of this plant in plant production industry and increasing need for new plant varieties with desired traits, more studies for creating African violet with new features by increasing the ploidy level under the in vitro conditions were not done until now. Polyploidy is a widespread phenomenon in the evolution of flowering plant and a key in plant speciation and diversification. Polyploid plants have been used in plant breeding programs for developing superior varieties and restoring the fertility of interspecific or intergeneric hybrids. Polyploidy in ornamental crops were successfully obtained under in vitro conditions. The chemical colchicine can be used as the most effective substance to obtain polyploid plants. In vitropolyploidization has number of advantages such as treatment of more plants with less material, control of test conditions, lower toxicity of chemicals and high success rate. This study with the aim of polyploid induction was carried out by different concentrations of colchicine at various periods under in vitro conditions.

    Materials and Methods

    The best treatment for the shoot regeneration and proliferation was MS medium with 2 mg/l BA after optimizing the tissue culture process. The study performed as follows: plantlets grown under in vitro in proliferation stage were treated with colchicine. The experiment was carried out in a 2-factorial manner based on a completely randomized design and factors were colchicine concentration at 0.02, 0.05, 0.1% and treatment duration for 18, 24, 48 hours. Evaluated characters of regenerated plants were as follows: plantlets survival percentage (the first month, the second month and the third month), morphological traits (include leaf number, petiole length, leaf length, leaf width, petiole diameter, leaf thickness and variation in form, vein, tip and margins leaf), reproductive traits (flower diameter (mm), number of petal, number of flower in inflorescence, height of inflorescence (mm)), microscopic epidermal cells in samples of diploid and tetraploid and ploidy levels. Assessment of flow cytometery was also used for all of the treated plants with colchicine and some diploid control plants and were expressed in the form of the percentage of diploid, mixoploid and tetraploid plants of African violet.

    Results and Discussion

    Results indicated that tetraploidy induction successfully was changed different morphological and cytological characteristics. Plantlets of treated with 0.02% colchicine in all three times only survived after three months, and with increasing treatment time, plantlets survival percentage was reduced. Thus 0.02% colchicine treatment for 24 hour found effective in inducing in vitro culture polyploidy of African violet. Comparison of the leaves of tetraploid with diploid plants indicated that the leaves of tetraploid plants in length and width were bigger than the diploid ones. The selected tetraploid plants showed a more compact shape than the control plants. Other results revealed that the treated plants with colchicine showed delayed growth. The assessment of microscopic indicated that the epidermal cells of tetraploid were larger than diploid. The results of flow cytometery evaluation showed that with increasing duration of colchicine, the number of diploid plants reduced and were added to mixoploid and tetraploid plants. Most plants were mixoploid.

    Conclusion

    The results of this study showed that the diploid and tetraploid plants indicated significant differences in term of morphological traits like leaf number, petiole length, leaf length, leaf width, petiole diameter, leaf thickness and variation in form, vein, tip and margins leaf, reproductive traits like flower diameter, number of petal, number of flower in inflorescence and also size of epidermal cells and flow cytometery evaluation. These differences can be suitable criterion for separating diploid and polyploid plants from each other. Generally, the combination of tissue culture methods and tetraploidy induction can be used as a rapid strategy for achieving new forms and properties of regenerates in vitro on African violet.

    Keywords: Colchicine, flow cytometry, Mixoploidy, Regeneration
  • Nasrin shahabi, Alireza Abdali Mashhadi, MohammadHossain Gharineh, Amin Lotfi Jalal Abadi Pages 195-208
    Introduction

    The German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) is an annual herb from the Asteraceae family. This plant has many medicinal uses. Chamazulene, α-bisabolone oxide A and b-farnesene are part of essential oil components of German chamomile. Chamomile causes the chamomile essential oil to turn blue color. Chamazulene is the most important part of chamomile essential oil. Chamazulene has many therapeutic properties, including lowering total cholesterol and triglycerides and generally having a high anti-concentration effect of lipoprotein (Hyperlipidemia) in the blood. Most plants are more vulnerable in the early stages of growth. Within a region with adverse climatic conditions, microclimate can make more survival possible for the plants. In very warm and dry areas, in furrow sowing condition, seeds sowing in the bed of furrow in the different geographical orientations causes the formation of microclimates, especially in short plants and at the germination and seedling stages. For example, salt accumulation on the ridge and reducing soil salt in the bed of furrowimprove growth conditionsand on the other hand, shading the ridge on the furrow, by reducing the time of sunlight shining on the furrow bed reduces soil temperature and evapotranspiration in early stages of seedling growth. The geographical orientations of the sowing can affect the shading period time of the ridgeon bedfurrow.

    Materials and Methods

    Under low irrigation and saline-sodic soil condition (At a depth of 0 to 30 cm, with an average electrical conductivity of 7.7 dS.m-1, pH 7.7, silty clay soil texture, 1% organic matter and with an altitude of 22 meters above sea level), a field experiment conducted in a factorial based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in Khuzestan Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University (North East of Ahvaz, 2016-2017). The experimental treatments were included the geographical orientations of sowing rows (control (nonlinear flat sowing) and orientations of sowing rows in the North-South, East-West, North East-South West, North West-South East) and chamomile landraces (Ahvaz, Isfahan, and Shiraz).The traits that were studied included: plant height, diameter of main stem, light extinction coefficient, capitule diameter, dry weight of 10 inflorescences, number of flowers per plant, number of stems per plant, dry inflorescence yield, essential oil percentage, essential oil yield, biological yield, percentage of chamazulene, α-Bisabolone oxide A and b-Farnesene in essential oil .

    Results and Discussion

    Experimental factors had no significant effect on dry weight of 10 inflorescences and capitule diameter. The lowest light extinction coefficient was observed in nonlinear flat sowing. The landraces had no significant effect on main stem diameter but the effect of geographical orientations of sowing rows were significant. The lowest and highest diameter of main stem were obtained from nonlinear flat sowing, respectively. The main effect of geographical orientations of sowing rows and interaction of populations and geographical orientations of sowing rows on number of stems per plant were significant. The highest number of stems per plant (15.2) was obtained from Shiraz landrace and northwest-southeast geographical orientation but the lowest number of stems per plant was in Shiraz landrace and nonlinear flat sowing (8.7). In both the highest and the lowest number of stems per plant, the landrace of Shiraz was common, this indicates a high effect of geographical orientations of sowing rows on this trait. The highest and the lowest of number of flowers per plant was observed in Isfahan landrace in north-south orientation (78.5) and Shiraz landrace and nonlinear flat sowing (49.5), respectively. The highest number of flowers per plant, dry inflorescence yield, and the highest biological yield were obtained from Isfahan landrace in the north-south, north-south and north west-south east orientations, respectively. The highest essential oil percentage was obtained from the Isfahan landrace (East-West orientation). The lowest and highest yield of essential oil was observed in Isfahan landrace and in nonlinear flat sowing and east-west direction, respectively, which increased by 221%. Isfahan landrace received different signals due to different climatic conditions (Ahwaz) compared to the main region (Isfahan) and this increased the percentage and yield of essential oil even more than native landrace (Ahwaz population). The highest percentage of chamazulene, b-Farnesene, and α-bisabolone oxide were shown in the Ahwaz (north-south), Shiraz (south west-north east) and Isfahan (north to south) landraces, respectively.

    Conclusion

    Isfahan non-native landrace had higher biological yield (northwest-southeast orientation) and essential oil percentage (east-west orientation) and essential oil yield (east-west orientation) than Shiraz and Ahwaz native landraces. Generally, row sowing in the furrow and in a suitable geographical orientation can be a low-cost method to increase crop productivity.

    Keywords: Chamazolene, Essential oil yield, Light extinction coefficient, Medicinal plant
  • Farnoush Malekshahi, A.A. Mehrabi*, Elahe Tavakol, Khosro Mehdikhanlo, Vahid Shariati Pages 209-221
    Introduction

    Basil genus (Ocimum) contains 30 to 150 species which grown in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, Central and South America and found as a wild plant in these areas. In India, around 25,000 ha is under cultivation of Ocimum spp., with an annual production of about 250–300 tonnes of essential oil. Ocimum gratissimum L., a dicotyledonous shrub plant, which belongs to the Lamiaceae family, stands out for the quality, quantity and chemical diversity of the essential oils. These oils have been used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Some of the essential oil compounds have antibacterial, insecticidal and antioxidant properties with high demand on the international market of the fine perfumery industry. It is also popularly used in herbal medicine for treating several diseases, such as upper respiratory tract infection, fever, cough, diarrhea and pneumonia. Being a short-duration economically viable medicinal and aromatic crop, clove basil has huge potential for large scale cultivation. Plant genetic has an important role in determining the type and amount of secondary metabolites of medicinal plants. Moreover, the recognition of species and genotypes with high genetic capability in the production of desired metabolites has been at the top of the plant breeding plans of medicinal plants. In addition, essential oil composition of plants may be affected by harvest time which is due to the impact of weather conditions on plant growth and development. The present study was aimed to evaluate the oil composition of two genotypes in two harvests.

    Materials and Methods

    The research was conducted in the research farm of the college of agriculture, shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran during 2019. Two valuable genotypes of Ocimum gratissimum L. (278 and 296), with two different essential oil profiles, were investigated in two harvests; spring and autumn seasons. The aboveground parts of the plants were collected on June and November and dried on shade at room temperature. The essential oils of the plants were extracted by water distillation through Clevenger apparatus and the quantity and quality of the essential oils were analyzed by GC and GC-MS.

    Results and Discussion

    The results of present study showed that the essential oil content of two genotypes was not affected by the harvest season while its amount was different in two genotypes. The essential oil content of genotype 296 was 2-fold of 278. According to the qualitative analysis of the essential oils, fifty compounds were identified in the essential oils of 278 and 296 genotypes. More than 98% of the identified compounds (in the essential oils of these two genotypes) were classified into five chemical classes; including hydrocarbon and oxygenated monoterpens, and hydrocarbon and oxygenated sesquiterpene and phenylpropanoids. The major constituent of the essential oil of genotype 278 was oxygenated monoterpene, thymol, on June (35.48 %) and November (45.85 %), which was not found in genotype 296. Gamma-terpinene was also significantly increased from June (13.15 %) to November (25.80 %). P-cymene (11.31-3.56 %), alpha- thujone (4.76-2.94 %), Germacrene D (3.73-2.76 %), caryophyllene E (3.66-1.51 %), myrcene (2.93-3.01 %), alpha-terpinene (2.63-3.38 %) and bourneol (2.28-0.71 %) were the remains of oil composition. Dihydro eugenol, which belongs to the chemical class of phenylpropanoids, was identified as the main essential oil components of genotype 296 which its amount was not affected by the harvest time. The other oil constituents were Beta (Z)-Ocimene (11.89-3.40 %), Germacrene D (3.58-2.80 %), and caryophyllene E (0.52-2.68 %).

    Conclusion

    Terpenoids such as thymol are synthesized via the mevalonic acid pathway, and phenylpropanoid compounds such as dihydroeugenol and eugenol are synthesized via the shikimic acid pathway. The metabolite diversity across different species could be explained by the differential gene expression pattern. According to the results of the present study, thymol was identified as the main oil components of genotype 278. This may be due to the increased expression of mevalonate enzymes. The monoterpene was replaced by phenylpropanoid; dihydrogenugenol, in the oil of genotype 296 which might be due to more expression of the enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway. In the other hand, Thymol, P-cymene and gamma-terpinene in genotype 278 varied significantly in different harvesting times, indicating the effect of temperature on the activity of enzymes involved in the synthesis of essential oil components. On the contrary, the amount of dihydrogenugenol in genotype 278 on June and November is not affected by the environmental conditions in two seasons. With regard to the conclusions to the proper growth of genotype 278 and 296, as well several harvests annually, essential oil content and thymol and dihydrogenugenol, therefore, it is suggested that further research should be carried out for developing plant cultivation in Khuzestan and southern provinces which is not suitable for basil growth.

    Keywords: basil, Essential oil, Eugenol, Genotype, thymol
  • A. Abdoli, Javad ramezani moghadam *, Y. Hosseini, M.R. Nikpour, H. Dehghan Pages 223-234
    Introduction

     Nowadays, the decrease of water resources and increasing salinity of irrigation water are evident in most parts of Iran. Increased salinity of irrigation water can impair plant metabolism, decrease biomass and stem length. On the other hand, water stress decreases root length and weight and crop yield. One way to reduce the negative effects of moisture stress is management of irrigation time. This can be investigated by changing the percentage of moisture permitted depletion and selecting the one with the lowest yield depletion. On the other hand, the amount of damage to the crop can be reduced by examining different amounts of water salinity and its effect on crop yield. Therefore, in this study, the effects of different amounts of irrigation water salinity and irrigation time management on tomato yield under greenhouse conditions were investigated.

    Materials and Methods

     This study was carried out in greenhouse (No. 2) of Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources of University of Mohaghegh Ardabili. In this research, the effect of different values of salinity (in different irrigation times) on root characteristics and yield of tomato (Saint Pierre cultivar) was investigated. The experimental design used in this research was a factorial experiment in a completely randomized block design with four replications. The applied treatments included salinity of irrigation water (four levels: S1=1.5ds/m, S2=2.5ds/m, S3=4ds/m and S4=7ds/m) and irrigation time management stress (in three levels, irrigation at 40, 50 and 65% field capacity, respectively, I1, I2, I3). The pots used in this study were incomplete cones with a height of 27 cm, a span diameter of 26 cm and a bottom diameter of 19 cm. In this study, indirect method (transplanting) was used for cultivating tomato. After cultivating the transplants in prepared pots, they were irrigated with pure water for two months to stabilize the transplants in order to avoid any stress effect on the transplants. The moisture meter (Model: PMS-714) was also used to measure daily soil moisture of the pots. Statistical analysis was performed by MSTATC software. The important characteristics investigated in this study were root length, root weight (dry and wet), root diameter and volume, plant yield, water drainage, evapotranspiration and water use efficiency.

    Results and Discussion

    According to the results of this study, salinity values of irrigation water had a significant effect at 1% level on fresh and dry root weight, root diameter and volume, total evapotranspiration, total water use, total water drainage output, crop yield and the number of blooms. On the other hand, irrigation water salinity had no significant effect on the number of unripe fruits at 5% confidence level. For example, the highest fresh and dry weight of roots were 26.17 and 6.3 g for S2 treatment, respectively. However, the difference in root weight values for S2 and S1 treatments (Mean equal to 27.5%) was not significant. Also, with increasing salinity of irrigation water above 2.5 dS/m, root weight (dry and fresh) decreased significantly (at 1% level). The reason for the decrease in root weight at high level of salt concentrations can be due to the accumulation of salt (including potassium, sodium, etc.) in various organs of the plant including the root. On the other hand, the results showed that the effect of irrigation time management was significant only on root diameter and weight of ripe fruit at 5% and 1%, respectively. According to the results of this study, irrigation can be achieved with 50% moisture allowable depletion instead of 40% moisture permitted depletion without significant change in the weight of ripe tomato fruit. This can certainly cause saving of irrigation water that can be very effective in the current condition of Iran and lack of water resources. In this study, the relationship between evapotranspiration and crop yield and the relationship between these parameters, were investigated. Results showed that, tomato yield coefficient of response to moisture stress (Ky) varied from 0.4 to 1.20. Also the average response coefficient of tomato to water stress was 1.12. This value was close to the mean Ky provided by the FAO (Ky = 1.05). The slight increase in Ky value obtained from this study is probably due to the salinity stress applied to the tomato plant.

    Conclusion

     This study was conducted to investigate the effect of salinity stress on yield and root characteristics of tomato under irrigation time management and greenhouse conditions. The results showed that the effect of irrigation salinity was significant on yield, yield components and root characteristics (e.g., root weight, diameter and volume, yield, evapotranspiration and drainage output). On the other hand, moisture stress induced by irrigation time variation had no significant effect on yield, yield components and root characteristics of tomato except in two cases. This study indicated that the effect of salinity irrigation water is more effective than water stress on reduction yield. Also, according to the results of this study, the use of 2.5 dS/m irrigation water salinity instead of 1.5 dS/m in most cases had no significant effect on yield reduction but may also increase it. The results of this study show that under current conditions of Iran (increasing quantitative and qualitative shortage of water resources) it is possible to use lower quality waters such as treated wastewater and agricultural wastewater (with management of salinity and leaching) to achieve the acceptable yields for crops.

    Keywords: Maximum allowable depletion, Moisture stress, water quality, Water use efficiency
  • seyed mohamadbagher razavi nia, Nasibeh Pourghasemian*, Farzad Najafi Pages 235-251
    Introduction

    Pollution of the biosphere with toxic levels of metals has accelerated dramatically since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Soil pollution by heavy metals including cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) is a global problem, which can cause agricultural lands to become hazardous for wildlife and human populations. Accumulated Cd and Pb in their roots and shoots may also be negatively affect their photosynthesis, growth, and reproduction. Cd and Pb uptake and their effects on plants may be influenced by a variety of factors, e.g. the plant species, cultivar, soil characteristics and etc. Heavy metals such as Cd and Pb may cause the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), damage plant tissue membranes, and inhibit photosynthesis, carbon dioxide assimilation, and growth. Photosynthesis is the fundamental process of energy metabolism and therefore, closely related to the plants growth and productivity. However, it is a sensitive process and an important target of environmental stresses. Plants counteract the harmful effects of heavy metals by a variety of protective mechanisms including immobilization, exclusion, chelation, compartmentalization, osmotic regulation and elevating antioxidant system. Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) is a widely grown aromatic and medicinal plant of the Labiatae family. The plant has various therapeutic properties and is also used to flavor different food products due to its particular taste. Little scientific data exist on the response of this medicinal plant to Cd and Pb stress. Therefore, the objective of this work was to investigate the biological and physiological responses of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) under cadmium and lead stress conditions.

    Materials and Methods

    A factorial randomized complete block design experiment with four replications was used to study the effect of Cd in four concentrations (0, 6, 12 and 24 mg.kg-1 soil) as well as Pb in four concentrations (0, 150 300 and 450 mg. Kg-1 soil). Before harvesting, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic and transpiration rates were measured with fluorescence meter and photosynthetic meter, respectively. Thereafter, plants were harvested and the roots were washed in distilled water. Then, half of the plants were separated into roots and shoots, which were dried at 105 °C for 24 h to determine the dry weight, Cd and Pb concentrations, Cd transfer factor and essential oil content. The other half of the plants were separated into roots and shoots, kept in liquid nitrogen, and then stored in freezer for one week to determine proline and shoot MDA concentrations. Data were subjected to two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the difference between means was compared using LSD test. A significance level of 95% was applied by SAS 9.2.

    Results and Discussion

    According to the results, root and shoot dry weight, protein content, photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate and chlorophyll fluorescence were decreased by increasing Cd and Pb concentrations. However, Cd concentration decreased these traits more than Pb. The shoot MDA concentration, essential oil and proline content were enhanced by increasing Cd and Pbconcentrations. The combination of two pollutants (Cd and Pb) together reduces the negative impact of each element alone. Shoot and root Cd and Pb concentrations were increased by increasing Cd and Pbconcentrations. The interaction effect of Cd×Pbapplication showed that increasing Cd concentration decreased root and shoot Pb concentrations and increasing Pb concentration decreased root and shoot Cd concentrations. Cd and Pb were not detected in essential oil. Moreover, the Cd transfer factor was increased with increasing Pb concentration under high Cd concentration levels (12 and 24 mg.kg-1).

    Conclusion

    This study demonstrated that Cd toxicity is more than Pb toxicity due to its high mobility. There was an antagonistic relationship between Cd and Pb. Furthermore, due to the absence of Cd and Pb in the essential oil, lemon balm may be a suitable plant for areas contaminated with heavy metals especial Cd and Pb.

    Keywords: Chlorophyll fluorescence, Essential oil, Proline, Protein, Transpiration rate
  • M. Sadat Farizani *, H.R. Khazaee, Gh.A. Gazanchian Pages 253-266
    Introduction

    Beautification of urban space and creating attractive face for cities by development of green space has caused to capita of urban green space be introduced as an important factor in urban development. Meanwhile, the important role of cover plants, especially turf grass, in creating green spaces has caused to add quickly the area of these beautiful plants in the cities. Nevertheless, existence of plants with high water requirements between the turf grasses, have created limitations in terms of water requirements supply. The grass planted in the country is mainly from imported seed types that are not so compatible with dry and semi-arid conditions in our country and from this point of view, sometimes they create limitations in terms of water supply. One of the native grasses in the country, is Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinaceous), which is a variety of cool-season, perennial and herbaceous grasses. One of the strategies to preserve grass under drought stress is improving soil structure with the aim of increasing the moisture. Organic compounds that improve soil physical and biological conditions (such as municipal waste compost and manure) can be effective. Using compost improves soil structure and strengthens soil mineral content and allows soil to retain moisture for longer. Because compost can hold water about two to six times its volume and prevent it from being wasted. Compost in heavy soils, improves soil porosity and makes the soil better ventilation elderly. In light soils, it acts like a sponge and by keeping water and food safe, it will greatly prevent them from being washed. Therefore, present research was done to evaluate the effect of mixing different amounts of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) compost with soil on some physiological properties of Tall Fescue native grass under moisture stress conditions.

    Materials and Methods

    This research was conducted in the form of two experiments in research greenhouse of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The first experiment with aim of evaluating percentage and rate of grass emergence was conducted in a completely randomized design with four replications that the experimental treatments consisted of ten different levels of compost mixing with soil (10 up to 100 t.ha-1) and control treatment (agronomic soil without mixing compost). In the second experiment, three values of 70, 80 and 90 tons of compost per hectare plus control (no compost consumption) as the first factor and three levels of moisture stress of 25, 50 and 100 percent of field capacity as intense stress, mild stress and without stress, respectively as the second factor that were compared in factorial by a completely randomized design with four replications.

    Results and Discussion

    The results of the first experiment showed that the amounts of 70, 80 and 90 tons per hectare increased significantly the percentage and rate of grass emergence due to increased fertility and higher water holding capacity and in these treatments, the positive effect of rising water holding capacity has been dominated on negative effect of electrical conductivity of the soil and this topic has led to an improvement in the percentage of grass emergence in these treatments. Furthermore, in the amounts of 70, 80 and 90 tons of compost per hectare, the bulk density of soil significantly decreased and the C/N ratio dramatically increased. In the second experiment, with increasing drought stress in different amounts of compost, the total chlorophyll content decreased and relative water content of plant, proline and electrolyte leakage increased. In the compost treatment of 90 tons per hectare, due to its high ability to store water, the cell membrane integrity was more preserved and it was done less understanding of stress. The shoot dry weight decreased significantly as a result of increasing the severity of drought stress.

    Conclusion

    Based on the findings of this study, application of 90 tons of compost per hectare significantly improved some of physiological traits for Tall Fescue grass in drought stress conditions. Also, it seems that Tall Fescue grass cleverly has tried to deal with drought stress with target of increase the amount of moisture available for itself. Therefore, using 90 tons of compost per hectare for Tall Fescue grass in low water conditions and occurrence of moisture stresses is recommended.

    Keywords: Chlorophyll, drought, Electrolyte leakage, Grass
  • A. Safari, A. Fatemi *, M. Saeedi, Z. Kolahchi Pages 267-281
    Introduction

     the lack of water resources in arid and semi-arid regions is one of the most important limiting factors of the growth of plants, especially fruit trees. Grapevines are one of the most important horticultural products in the world as well as in Iran. The water content of plant tissues, their growth, and the availability of different nutrients in the soil are significantly reduced under water stress conditions. Therefore, the successful production of the plant under water stress conditions depends on the management of plant nutrition. By application of organic and chemical fertilizers, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil can be improved. Besides, it can reduce the adverse effects of drought stress conditions.    

    Materials and Methods

     To evaluate the effect of compost, biochar, and potassium sulfate application on dry matter, relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll a, b, total, and carotenoid contents, as well as the concentration of macro-and micronutrients of leaves of grapevines ‘Bidane-Ghermez’ under two drought stress conditions, this experiment, was conducted in the research greenhouse during 2017-2018. The experiment was carried out as a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with two factors and four replications. The first factor, without drought stress conditions (80% field capacity (FC)), and drought stress conditions (40% FC), and fertilizer treatments included potassium sulfate (1.25 g.kg-1), compost (5 % w/w), and biochar (10% w/w).
      

    Results and Discussion

     The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the interaction effect of drought stress ×fertilizers application was not significant for dry matter, and RWC (P>0.05). Also, the results of ANOVA indicated that the simple effect of drought stress conditions was not significant for dry matter but the simple effect of fertilizer application was significant for leaf dry matter (P<0.01). Without drought stress conditions, there were no significant differences in leaf dry matter between different fertilizer treatments. However, under drought stress conditions, the highest dry matter of grapevine leaves was observed in biochar, compost, and potassium sulfate, respectively. Also, there were no significant differences in leaf dry matter of grapevine between biochar treatment under drought stress conditions and all fertilizer treatments without drought stress conditions. The simple effect of drought stress conditions was significant for leaf dry matter (P<0.05). The results of ANOVA revealed that the interaction effect of drought stress ×fertilizer application was not significant for chlorophyll a, b, total, and carotenoid contents of grapevine leaves. However, the simple effects of drought stress conditions and fertilizer application were significant for chlorophyll a, b, total, and carotenoid contents of grapevine leaves (P<0.01). Relative water, chlorophyll a and carotenoid contents of grapevine leaves were not significantly different among fertilizers treatments. The increase of chlorophyll a/b ratio compared with control was changed in order biochar>potassium sulfate>compost. Moreover, the interaction effect of drought stress ×fertilizer application was significant for nitrogen (N), magnesium (Mg), ferrous (Fe), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) concentrations of grapevine leaves (P<0.01). The ANOVA indicated that the simple effects of drought stress conditions and fertilizer application had a significant effect (P<0.01) on macro- and micro-elements concentrations of grapevine leaves. By application of biochar, the concentration of P, K, Mg, and Cu of grapevine leaves significantly were higher than compost and potassium sulfate applications. This consequently resulted in higher chlorophyll a/b ratio and dry matter of grapevine leaves in biochar treatment for control under drought stress conditions.

    Conclusion

     Based on the results of this research, it can be concluded that the application of fertilizers reduced drought stress effects on biochemical characteristics and dry matter of grapevine leaves. According to the results, at first the application of biochar is recommended, then potassium sulfate and compost. Our previous results indicated that by application of compost, the available sodium (Na) of soil was increased 8.53 and 60.52 % for potassium sulfate and compost treatments compared to control, respectively. While, by application of biochar, the available Na of soil reduced 3.73 % in comparison with control. This finding is so important regarding the Na effects on soil structure, the toxicity of Na for plants as well as the interaction between Na and K. Considering K is a critical element to regulate the water content of plant tissue and reduces the hazards of water stress conditions, the higher concentration of Na prevents K uptake from the soil solution by plant.

    Keywords: Biochar, Carotenoid, Chlorophyll, Compost, Potassium sulfate
  • Mahbube Zamanipour Pages 283-300
    Introduction

    Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a perennial plant, which is rich in antioxidant compounds, lycopene, polyphenols and vitamin C. Iran, with production of 5.24 million tons, is ranked sixth in the world in tomato production. According to the latest FAO reports in 2019, the total area under tomato cultivation was 121203 hectares, with an average yield of 43.30 tons per hectare, and annual production of 5248904 tons. Vitamins are made from natural ingredients and are suitable for the growth, function and improvement of plant nutrition. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different levels of pyridoxine (50, 100 and 150 mgL-1), thiamine (50, 100 and 150 mgL-1) and folic acid (50, 100 and 150 mgL-1) and the combination of these vitamins on the plant growth, yield and chemical properties of tomatoes.

    Materials and Methods

    This study was conducted as randomized complete block design with three replications in the greenhouse of Iranshahr University during the years 2019 to 2020. The tomato cultivar was Delphus, the seedling of which was purchased from Pakan Bazr Isfahan Company. In August, with the beginning of the tomato planting period in the greenhouse, seedlings were planted and the harvest lasted until December. Seedlings were planted in rows of 75 cm wide and 40 cm apart. Irrigation was performed in the greenhouse with a drip system. The first irrigation was carried out immediately after planting and the second and third irrigations were carried out one day later for one hour and the subsequent irrigations were carried out in proportion to the growth of seedlings, every other day, every four days. At the 7-8 leaf stage, the plants were guided vertically on the thread. The greenhouse temperature was 25 to 32 °C during the experiment and 18 to 24 °C at night and the relative humidity was about 50%.

    Results and Discussion

     The results showed that all used concentrations of pyridoxine, thiamine and folic acid increased the growth parameters compared to the control, so that the highest plant height (271 cm), stem diameter (7 cm), number of leaves (31) fresh weight (502 g) and dry weight (341.66 g) were produced at a concentration of 100 mgL-1 pyridoxine + 100 mgL-1 thiamine + 100 mgL-1 folic acid. Interaction of B vitamin levels at low, medium and high levels had a significant effect on the reproductive parameters of tomato plants, so that the highest number of flowers (41.33), number of fruits (29.55), number of clusters (9.77), fruit diameter (22.44 mm), fruit fresh weight (158 g) and fruit dry weight (10.81 g) and yield (5688.9667 g/plant) at a concentration of 100 mgL-1 pyridoxine, 100 mgL-1 thiamine and 100 mgL-1 was observed per liter of folic acid. Increasing of yield can be due to increased nutrient uptake and assimilation, and increased growth due to the presence of vitamins. Similar results by El-Gharmany et al. (2005) stated that foliar application of vitamins (B1, B6 and B12) in appropriate concentrations in cowpea significantly increased the number of pods per plant and total yield compared to the control. Shabaly and El-Ramady (2014) and Shabana et al. (2015) found that some natural ingredients have increased yield of garlic and tomatoes. Also, all concentrations of pyridoxine, thiamine and folic acid used increased biochemical parameters compared to the control. Maximum pH (4.78), acidity (0.28%), soluble solids (3.93%), lycopene (2.64 mg/100 g fresh weight), total phenol content (66.66 mg/100 g fresh weight, vitamin C (13.36 mg/100 g fresh weight), chlorophyll a (1.98 mg/g fresh weight), chlorophyll b (0.98 mg /g fresh weight) and carotenoids (3.33 mg/g fresh weight) were obtained by using a combination of 100 mgL-1 pyridoxine, 100 mgL-1 thiamine and 100 mgL-1 folic acid. Foliar application of vitamin treatments may play an important role in physiological and metabolic processes that affect the process of photosynthetic metabolism and lead to an increase in soluble solids and minerals. The interaction of vitamins improves the action of biochemicals on amino acid metabolism and nucleic acid synthesis. However, Abdel-Halim (1995) reported that foliar application of some vitamins improved leaf growth, increased chlorophyll, chemicals, and internal hormones in tomatoes during the winter. El-Ghamriny (2005) reported that foliar application of B vitamins (B1, B6 and B12) increased leaf chlorophyll in cowpea compared to the control, and Burguieres et al. (2007) found that folic acid at a concentration of 50 mgL-1 increased minerals in peas. Hendawy and Ezz El-Dinn (2010) reported that vitamin B complex as a coenzyme in enzymatic reactions such as carbohydrates, fatty acids and proteins involved in photosynthesis and respiration. In addition, Abd El-Hakim (2006) reported that some antioxidants improve biochemical properties in some beans.

    Conclusion

     The results showed that the use of pyridoxine, thiamine and folic acid vitamins alone or in combination with each other improved the growth, reproductive and biochemical characteristics of Delphi greenhouse tomatoes. The highest growth rate, yield and biochemical properties were obtained at 100 mgL-1 pyridoxine + 100 mgL-1 thiamine + 100 mgL-1 folic acid.

    Keywords: growth, Nutrition, Tomato, yield, Vitamins
  • Sajad Heidari *, S. Reezi, S.N. Mortazavi, A. Nikbakht Pages 301-311
    Introduction

     Lily (Lilium spp.) is one of the most beautiful and popular ornamental bulbous plants that belongs to the Liliaceae family. Lilies (Lilium spp.) belong to one of the six more important genera of bulbous flowers, which is the fourth most famous plant in the world after Rose, Dianthus, and Chrysanthemum. The genus Lilium comprises more than 100 species, which are mainly distributed in the northern hemisphere. These species are taxonomically divided into seven sections, including Martagon, Pseudolirium, Lilium, Archelirion, Sinomartagon, Leucolirion, and Oxypetalum. It has been suggested that early removal of Lily buds should enhance Lily bulb yield. Disbudding improves the process of bulb development through its influence on the accumulation and transport of carbohydrates in Lily bulbs. In several studies, the effect of bud removal on vegetative characteristics and propagation of Lily bulbs including cut flower length, leaf area, size and weight of the bulb, number, and size of bulbs, number, and size of scales have been reported. With considering the importance of Lily bulb production in the country and the lack of current research on new Lilium hybrids, including various Oriental and OT hybrids, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of cultivar and disbudding on the vegetative characteristics of Lily flowers and its effect on production and multiplication of Lily.

    Materials and Methods

     To study the effect of cultivar and disbudding on the growth and bulb production of Lily, a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with two cultivars (the Tiber and Donato), and three disbudding items (D0= No disbudding, D1= Disbudding at the stage of bud appearance, and D3= Disbudding at the stage of 3 cm bud length) was conducted in three replications. This research was carried out in hydroponic greenhouses in Dehaghan city, Isfahan province, in an area with a longitude of 51˚, 61´ E, 31˚, 96´ N, and 2004 m mean above sea level. Temperature, humidity, and light intensity inside the greenhouse during the growing period was 15-25 ℃, 50-70 percent, and 20-30 kilolux, respectively. Evaluated characteristics included the plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves, leaf area, number of buds, bulb weight, number of the scale, scale size, number of bulblets, and propagation coefficient.

    Results and Discussion

     The results showed that cultivar and disbudding (Except stem diameter) significantly affect all evaluated traits, while their interaction had a significant impact on bulb weight, bulblet number, propagation coefficient, bulb size, and scale size. In the Donato cultivar, plant height, stem diameter, leaf area, bulb weight, bulb size, scale size, number of bulbs, and propagation coefficient were 32.9%, 6.9%, 35.3%, 40.9%, 14.2%, 70.1%, 77.9%, and 8.2%, respectively higher than Tiber cultivar, while in the Tiber cultivar, the number of leaves and number of scales was 12.5% and 54.9%, respectively higher than the Donato cultivar. The highest plant height and leaf area were observed in non-disbudding treatment. However, the shortest stem and the smallest leaf were observed in disbudding at the stage of bud appearance and disbudding at the stage of 3 cm bud length which was 10.1% and 9.4%, respectively less than the non-disbudding treatment. By disbudding at the stage of bud appearance, the maximum number of scales, the heaviest bulb, the largest bulb, and the maximum scale size was measured that increased by 11.3%, 91.2%, 23.3%, and 39.2%, respectively compared to the non-disbudding treatment, while the lowest value of mentioned traits was recorded with non-disbudding treatment. By applying bud removal treatments up to the third level, the number of leaves, the number of bulbs, and propagation coefficient increased by 2.7%, 37.0%, and 3.6%, respectively, compared to the non-disbudding treatment, although there was no statistically significant difference between disbudding at the stage of 3 cm and disbudding at the stage of bud appearance. On the other hand, the lowest value of these traits occurred in the non-disbudding treatment. In the Tiber cultivar, the highest bulb weight, bulb size, and scale size were obtained by disbudding at the stage of bud appearance, which showed an increase of 93.5%, 24.0%, and 53.9%, respectively, compared to the non-disbudding treatment. Furthermore, in the Donato cultivar, disbudding at the stage of bud appearance significantly increased bulb weight, bulb size, and scale size by 89.4%, 22.8%, and 31.5%, respectively, compared to the non-disbudding. Also, the highest bulblet number and propagation coefficient in this cultivar were obtained by disbudding at the stage of 3 cm bud length, which increased 58.3% and 0.7%, respectively compared to the non-disbudding treatment.

    Conclusion

     In general, it can be concluded that the Donato cultivar has a significant advantage in most of the evaluated traits over the Tiber cultivar, which can be attributed to the genetic distance between different Oriental and OT hybrids. Disbudding at the stage of bud appearance, if the end of the branch is not damaged, was the most appropriate treatment for replanting, production, and propagating of Lily bulb.

    Keywords: Bulblet, Lilium, Production, Scale, Variety