نشریه نقد ادب معاصر عربی
پیاپی 20 (بهار و تابستان 1400)

Defamiliarization or foreignization is a formalist concept that influences common and familiar scenes and presents them in new ways and different from everyday realities. According to Shklovsky, the concept implies that foreignizing whatever is familiar and habitual. Walking, for example, is a regular act but dance is changing and tangible act. We often inhale air automatically; the same is true of language, it is the middle ground in which we move. But, when the air is suddenly polluted or accompanied by dust, our attention is drawn to our breathing, and it may affect our physical life as a profound experience. Formalists believe that art changes our habits and whatever is about us and makes the strange. Art and literature are supposed to discover things for the second time. Formalists believe that art and literature should arouse astonishment and unfamiliarity in audience and make them feel a strange feeling. According to them, artists try to move things far away from their regular context and create unexpected features. Therefore, defamiliarization or foreignization seeks to break the habits, but it is based on reality. Shafiei Kadkani believes that there is no limitation for defamiliarization, and every kind of innovation in art is a sort of defamiliarization. It is worth mentioning that all tactics for making arts are universal and common among cultures and the result of human being’s creativity. Writing, especially creating novels, is among the arts that work based on defamiliarizatin. Novelists put aside familiar methods of narrating stories to present their idea in a special and personal way because that would result in innovation in writing and make the readership feel close to the writer, the exact thing that formalism emphasizes.  The novelist has the ability to present an exact image of life artistically. This happens when he uses a set of strategies such as defamiliarization or foreignization for writing a new, unfamiliar and irregular novel. He continuously tries to makes novelties even when his works are different in terms of literary type (anecdote, short story, and novel). It can be said that he stands against real perceptions, and this resistance results in new writings. Therefore, he presents a story with unusual and unfamiliar issues that seem to be the basics. The basics are in such a way that would prevent the author from going far away from the events and characters. Shkolvsky explains the theory that a bond is made between us and all the things around us, something that becomes internalized in wisdom. In this way, the things unconsciously become new, and the new idea becomes a habit. The role of literariness here is making us conscious again. This is done through what shekovsky calls it defamiliarization/foreignization, which is breaking the bonds between things and us. Shkolvsky explains the theory that a bond is made between us and all the things around us, which becomes internalized in wisdom. In this way, the things unconsciously become new and the new idea becomes a habit. The role of literariness here is making us conscious again. This is done through what Shkolvsky calls it defamiliarization/foreignization, which is breaking the bonds between things and us. Regarding the subject and using the theory as a framework, his study sought to explore the effect of defamilirazation, as a formalist technique, on the title, characters, time, events, theme, style, language of the novel ‘The Thief and the Dogs’.(اللص والکلاب)

The study aimed to explore the criticism concept of defamiliaraization and its effect on novel and literary works. Regarding the objective, the novel ‘The Thief and the Dogs’ was selected as it was identified to be an appropriate one.

 This is a descriptive-analytical study showing that the novel ‘The Thief and the Dogs’ is a mystery in which defamiliarization is visible and the technique makes the novel strange. The mysterious features of the novel make it strange and different from what one may encounter in daily life.

The followings were concluded through exploring the examples of defamiliarization in ‘The Thief and the Dogs’:1. Defamiliarization occurs in this novel when paradox, irony and symbols become dominant. The symbols are full of ironies, and the term Kalab (thief) has two visible and hidden meanings, but the writer meant the second one which means “treacherous”. The audience understands the symbol and the breach of semantic norms that makes the text defamiliarized. 2. When looked from formalism point of view, symbols and messages that are in different aspects of Egypt community, religion and woman, make the novel defamiliarized.  3. The paradox of characters makes the readership familiar with unusual concepts.  4. Expected and unexpected events create a paradox and result in a defamiliarized language of the novel.

Émile Durkheim was the first sociologist to introduce suicide (as a social phenomenon) to sociology from the realm of individual and psychology. He studied the rate of suicide as a social harm in the context of individual's relationship with the group and concluded that social situations are the main reason for people within a community to commit self-destruction. As he also found, attempts to directly convince them to avoid this suicidal act is futile because the real motives lie in the context of the society. In his novel Al-Kafareh (the infidel woman), Ali Badr, a contemporary Iraqi writer, attempts to portray the current perturbed conditions in Iraq in the form of a story of a woman named Fatima whose father and brother were influenced by the takfiri ideology of ISIL and committed suicide. She commits suicide roo after suffering the pain of immigration and asylum to Europe. It seems that this social harm can be analyzed in the light of Durkheim’s theory. To explain the causes of social harms such as suicide in different groups of the current Iraqi society, this paper analyzes the novel Al-Kafareh and criticizes the author's analytical views based on Durkheim's sociological theories to answer the questions a) what is the relationship between the suicide of an individual and group social events in the novel Al-Kafareh? and b) In terms of adaptation, to what extent is the attempt to self-destruct by the characters of the story consistent with Durkheim's theory? Undoubtedly, the answers to these questions can significantly explain the socially harmful factors and be effective in conveying the author's awareness to the audience in the world of fiction.

The research method of this study is qualitative and descriptive using content analysis. Content analysis is done in a systematic way to objectively, qualitatively and systematically describe the content and concepts of written texts. The authors' approach in this paper is sociological criticism of the content (sociological themes) to explain and criticize the author's critical view based on Durkheim's sociological theories. To achieve this goal, the required data on Durkheim's theory and social harms were first collected by a library method with a focus on suicide. Afterward, the novel was reread and analyzed and a network of themes through content analysis as well as extraction of textual evidence. An attempt was also made to divide the analytical part of the article into four parts based on the suicide types and according to Durkheim. Thus, each example was analyzed under its subcategory by matching the text to the theory.

Durkheim divides suicide into four types according to the relationship of the self-destructive individual with the group. They include Egoistic (selfish), Altruistic (unselfish), Anomic (anomalous) and Fatalistic (coincidental). In the light of studying the relationship between the suicide of the characters in the story with social realities such as integration and regularity (social control), the research findings suggest that there is no coherence between individuals in a small institution such as family nor in the wider circle of group or society, which leads to egoistic or altruistic suicide of the characters in the story. The coherence between man and woman is weak and unfounded in the Iraqi society because it is a patriarchal society, such that the perceived class differences as well as the lack of equal access to economic and social capital has eased the links of individual with the group and paved the way for egoistic suicide. It can be said that those connected to the ISIS group have mechanical solidarity and that their suicide operations are classified as altruistic suicide.

The novel Al-Kafareh has several social and critical aspects, and the author depicts social themes through a dramatic familiar narrative style. Representation of such anomalies in the society can give collective activists the necessary insight and self-awareness and, accordingly, the social critic can scrutinize different aspects of the society in a literary work. All the elements of the novel are closely related to the Iraqi society and its relationships. The main theme of this novel is suffering, which includes various physical and psychological forms resulting from the rupture of human relations, the tense situation in the family and society, economic and social pressures, the disturbed conditions of women in the society, and so on. By mentioning these issues, the author seeks to show the turmoil in the Iraqi society, and, by depicting family and social relationships, he illustrates social gaps. To account for the suicide of the novel's characters according to Durkheim's theory, incoherence and insecure situations can be considered as contributing factors. The novel classifis the suicide of Sophia, her spouse, and Adrian’s father as anomic, egoistic and fatalistic, respectively.

Semiotics, also called semiology, is the study of signs and sign-using behavior. It was defined by one of its founders, the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, as the study of “the life of signs within society.” Although the word was used in this sense in the 17th century by the English philosopher John Locke, the idea of semiotics as an interdisciplinary field of study emerged only in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the independent works of Saussure and the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce. Saussure treated language as a sign-system, and his work in linguistics supplied the concepts and methods that semioticians applied to sign-systems other than language. One such basic semiotic concept is Saussure’s distinction between the two inseparable components of a sign, namely the signifier, which is linguistically a set of speech sounds or marks on a page, and the signified, which is the concept or idea behind the sign. Saussure also distinguished parole, or actual individual utterances, from langue, the underlying system of conventions that makes such utterances understandable. It is this underlying langue that most interests semioticians. The interest in the structure behind the use of particular signs linked semiotics with the methods of structuralism, which sought to analyze such relations. Saussure’s theories are, thus, also considered to be fundamental to structuralism (especially structural linguistics) and poststructuralism. The relationship between language and emotions can be viewed from two viewpoints. First, language, in a broad sense, can be viewed as being emotive. Taking this view, it is commonly assumed that people, at least on occasions, have emotions, and that being emotional gains its own agency, impacting the communicative situation in a variety of ways. This can also take place extralinguistically (e.g. by facial expressions, body postures, proximity, and the like), in terms of suprasegmentational and prosodic features, and in terms of linguistic forms. In this view, language and emotion are two concurrent, parallel systems in use, and their relationship is due to the impacts of emotions on the performance of the language. Both of them share their functionality in the communicative process among people. If language is conceived of as merely representing the world of emotions and/or people's conceptualizations and understandings of the emotions, it offers an immediate access. Language, in this view, is transparent. However, if it is conceived of in one or another way as contributing to how emotions are understood, or even, to what emotions are, the relationship is not direct but mediated. As far as the narrative literature is concerned, the earliest philological studies of gesture show a strong interest in cultural history. They complemented contemporary writings in folklore, folk psychology and comparative linguistics that attempted to take the inventory of the gestures in various cultures, in particular those of the Greeks and Romans and of the European Middle Ages.

For any interaction with another person, we communicate with each other primarily through nonverbal channels. This occurs through multiple channels and is both strategic and non-strategic.  This includes body language, voice tone, clothing and adornments, the environment, timing, and touch. For nonverbal communication, a single element such as choosing where to sit during a negotiation or meeting or perhaps a hand gesture can be viewed as having a minimal importance on the overall impact of the situation.

Personality is the manifestation of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a person unique. It is believed that personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. While there are many different definitions of personality, most scholars focus on the pattern of behaviors and characteristics that can help to predict and explain a person's behavior. Traits and patterns of thought and emotion play important roles along with fundamental characteristics of personality. The major characteristics are as follows:   a) Consistency: There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.   b) Psychological and physiological features: Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.   c) Behaviors and actions: Personality not only influences how we move and respond to our environment, but it also causes us to act in certain ways.   d) Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.   In the mentioned novel, there are several examples of cultural and social issues related to women that show an instrumental view of women. The social rights of women in this novel are not equal to those of men, and they are victims of what the patriarchal society figured out for them. Much of the behavior of the female characters in this novel arises from and is influenced by the cultural atmosphere of the society a few decades ago, whose cultural and social characteristics are revealed through what the society expect from women's behaviors, relationships and beliefs. The different women in this novel are the product of the world, i.e., thinking, culture, and upbringing of patriarchal societies. They have experienced emotions that are often formed under certain coercive conditions, and, in this novel, they move from tradition to modernity.  They must both play the role of the beloved as a delicate creature and satisfy the opposite sex in the community and protecting their chastity and innocence in an atmosphere full of inequality as well as hidden verbal and physical violence. In this situation where the woman is still recognized as a veiled being, she is deprives of the possibility of direct communication with others. So, it makes the non-verbal communication of women more highlighted in the novel.

The following table shows the presence of non-verbal connotations in the novel Ayyām maʻah:   total head hand position face   757 40 71 138 508 frequency Ayyām maʻah 100% 5% 10% 18% 67% percentage   The relationship of the story characters to the feminine characters' non-verbal face-related signs has a high frequency.  This indicates the importance of body language is in the relationships of the characters in the story. The high frequency of facial expressions in the novel is due to the fact that, in the non-verbal communication of the novel characters especially when the parties are women, facial expressions that include lip and mouth movements and eye gestures are more usable and visible. They are one of the main channels of messaging through which a huge amount of information is transmitted to the addressee in a relatively short time in the form of looks, laughter, crying and kissing. Regarding the importance of eye gestures in the non-verbal communication of the characters of the novel, it should be noted that the eye is the instance of the face and participates in revealing the hidden secrets of the person with other parts of the face. This is evident throughout the story and in the interpersonal relationships of the female characters, especially "Reem". Also, the non-verbal communication modules in the book contain more positive concepts to express satisfaction with the past, present happiness and hope for the future. This mood of the female characters in the story and their mostly confirmatory and peaceful personality are appropriate.

Recognizing the nature of human being with the aim of discovering the fundamental motives of human behavior and in the pursuit of human nature has been center of attention of researchers in various scientific fields such as psychology. Freud said that the main factor of effort and human activity in all spheres of life is the sensation of his failure, which is found in almost all human beings. He cites methods to compensate for the failure, one of which is" Association". Some contemporary Arab poets have expressed their aims and the problems of the society by hiding behind their masks. For this reason, in the contemporary era, the tendency to reflect on the Sa'alik works has become a common practice for the critics of the society. So, we can say that the agents of Saa`lik and the way they live is an effective behavioral approach throughout the history. The principles of Saa`lik`s life has made suitable patterns for contemporary poets. Ali Fode grew up in an environment full of anxiety and violence in his childhood. The emotional problems caused by the sudden death of his parents and the ignoring of the politicians on the Palestinian issue caused him to turn against the world like an ignorant Saa`lik and consider it as a model to achieve their goals. This study is based on the qualitative analysis of the content of Ali Fode`s poems and the use of psychological criticism in the literature and the library resources. The purpose is to investigate why and how Ali Fode (1946-1982), the contemporary Palestinian poet, associate himself with the Saa`lik Jaheli. Regarding "empathy as a natural phenomenon" in his poetry, Ali Fode avoided people because he had seen the cruelty of the society and the incompetence of the Arab leaders against the ruling regime of Palestine. He was in a hard time and saw no one accompanying him on the path of defending his homeland and realizing the ideal of democratic aspirations. Concerning association with Saa`lik, "enduring hardships to achieve the goal", it should be said that Ali Fode also had revolutionary and anti-oppression spirits; he could never tolerate the invasion of Palestine by the enemies and the indifference of Arab leaders to the occupation of this land. This caused the poet to consider the ignorant Saa`lik as his role model and to endure hardships like them and invite people to do the same. Regarding Ali Fode`s association with Sa`alik in the phenomenon of "love for the desert", the concept of the desert in his poetry differs from that desert which was raised in the Sa'alik poem. The emptiness of the desert in the Sa'alik poem means the absence of human beings in that place, but, by desert, Ali Fode means that the hearts of the Arab officials are empty of compassion and sympathy with the Palestinians. Moreover, the word “desert” can be used as the land of Palestine which has become empty of self-conscious and heroic human beings. In the case of association in the attribute of " turning away from the relatives and friends", it must be said that from Ali Fode`s point of view, one of the factors in the success of Sa`alik in achieving their goals was their switching away from the tribe that did not help them. For this reason, he avoided the people who had forgotten their goals and achieved their goals in isolation, as he did in order to achieve his goal of saving the Palestinian people. The last characteristic is " self-esteem " for which Ali Fode was tired of oppression and injustice against Palestinian people. So, he considered self-esteem as one of the factors in achieving his goals. To achieve his own purposes, he imitated Sa`alik. In general, Ali Fode`s poems are good evidence to prove his purposeful association with Sa'alik. From this contemporary poet`s perspective, in fact, the characteristics of Sa`alik were the key to success. To achieve his goals in the Palestinian environment, he identified himself with those characteristics. The results of the study show that Fode's emotional break in the family and the lack of support from his friends and Palestinian authorities to achieve his social aims caused him to unconsciously follow the Saa`lik Jeheli`s method. He did this in his imaginations by turning away from the society, associating with natural phenomena and identifying himself with the revolutionary poets of the Jaheli period. The main concepts of Fode's poems as a result of this association are empathy with natural phenomena, the tolerance of difficulties, rebellion against the enemies, love for the desert, turning away from the relatives and friends, self-steem and self-respect.

The discussion of the relationship between language and gender has been a complex and important topic in linguistics in different eras, especially in recent decades. By presenting the collected pieces of evidence, linguists showed that, among the language users, men and women are different in terms of verbal behavior. They consider these changes rooted in factors such as climate, geographical location, and social class. In this regard, with his book "Language and the Status of Women", Lakoff seriously examined the linguistic differences between men and women. In her view, the difference in power between the two sexes has led to the subordination and obedience of women and the domination and superiority of men, and this inequality is reflected in the speech of women in a significant way. The gender characteristics of language can be examined in the novels The Snow of Cairo by Lena Abd ul-Rahman and The Yacoubian Building by Ala Aswani with linguistic skills and literary delicacy. With regard to language, these two try to introduce and identify their individual, social, cultural and political identity and their society. This study aims to identify a new dimension in novel studies by examining the gender linguistics in the mentioned novels based on Lakoff's perspective. It is done in order to acquaint the reader with the world of authors' narratives and their attitude towards them. This study seeks to show how differences in gender lead to differences in speech style and consequently differences in style. There are also other questions that come up in this paper including a) How and in what contexts has gender influenced the language of writers?, and b) How can Lakoff's perspective clarify gender differences among writers? The method of the present study is descriptive-analytical and based on comparisons. First, the whole texts of the two novels are examined, and then examples are extracted in consistence with Robin Lakoff's perspective on linguistic differences related to genders. Obviously, men and women treat language challenges and taboos differently, and women are inherently more inclined to use polite speech. In the novel The Snow of Cairo, the protagonist sees many infidelities and betrayals on the part of his wife and others, so it is natural for him to get upset and utter all sorts of vulgar and non-vulgar words. Nevertheless, he does not tarnish the tone of speech and observes the etiquette in speech and uses the word "curse" only once, which is also used by Sabir's friend. But the novel TheYacoubian Building is full of forbidden words, socio-cultural taboos and theological dilemmas. In this novel, one can find all kinds of words related to dance and song, club and nightclub, sexual issues as well as wine and opium. It is as if the novel is an exhibition for the manifestation and introduction of all kinds of drinking tools and instruments as well as an encyclopedia for identifying all kinds of nightclubs, illicit relationships, homosexuality and debauchery. Color is noticeable in the novel The Snow of Cairo, and the author has been able to depict different spectrums of color for the audience. The use of light oak, white, jasmine and honey colors reminds the woman of elegance, precision and punctuality. Ala Aswani has also used color to beautify her story space, but her productivity mostly includes colors with the main spectrum such as red, blue, white, yellow and orange. After studying the novel The Snow of Cairo, it was concluded that no oaths weretaken to accept thoughts and beliefs. In contrast, in various places in the novel The Jacobite Building, oaths, especially to the sacred, are heard in the language of various characters. In the novel The Snow of Cairo, the author uses repetition to conceptualize and create meanings with different motives such as emphasis on words, credibility, and importance of the subject. In his novel, Ala Aswani has used the element of repetition to induce the concept into the mind of the audience. However, the use of this element does not reach the frequency of that by Lena Abdul Rahman. Lena Abd ul-Rahman has used the question in the novel The Snow of Cairo, in different parts and for different purposes. The questions in this novel are often followed by short and numerous phrases. Aswani, in The Yacoubian Building, also uses the question to emphasize the meaning and persuade the audience about the story; it difference from Lena Abdul Rahman's novel is that it uses fewerless questions, one or at most two. The Snow of Cairo has a high frequency both in the number and variety of colors and their tints and shades, which refers to feminine elegance, punctuation and meticulousness. This is something that brings the narrative closer to the real world of a thousand colors. Aswani, however, appears to choose holistic and superficial colors, because men consider it more important to work on other issues. Oaths have no place in the novel The Snow of Cairo. But they are an important element for emphasizing and believing the words and thoughts of the characters in The Yacoubian Building. The non-use of the oath by the female author creates a kind of softness and kindness in the speech and literary style, while the repetition of this component has led to seriousness and emphasis in Aswani’s words. The characters in the novel The Snow of Cairo behave politely, with respect for the standard language and the observance of moral standards, which has brought politeness to speech as well as softness and kindness to the literary style of the female writer. Also, the use of various idioms by Aswani indicates violence and inflexibility in the narrative space and introduces the general style of his literature. Both authors have used the element of repetition to reinforce the meaning and confirm their words with the difference that Abdul-Rahman used repetition to remove doubts in important and fateful elements such as jihad, job, etc. It can be said that the literary language of Lena Abdu-Rahman in this novel is delicate, soft, detailed, full of emotions, politen, sobrious, serious, firm, general, obscene, and rhetorically significant. Grammatical and threatening sentences are the features of Ala Aswani’s literary language.

Today, the study of narrative works in terms of form and structure is considered as an important issue in the field of narrative studies. At the beginning of the twentieth century, contemporary critics and theorists, including Vladimir Propp, Grimas, Todorov, Philip Hamon and others, offered differing views on the concept of narrative personality and its functions.  Propp, one of the most important Russian formalists, made a new breakthrough in the functions of narrative characters. Examining fairy tales, he came to the conclusion that these stories have thirty-one functions and seven types of characters, all of which have a special connection with the main theme of the story. Propp believed that there was an inseparable connection between the apparent structure and the theme of each story, and that, in general, every story theme is achieved through the connection between its details and its functional components. Even today, some narrative scholars believe that, by shifting Propp's functions and eliminating others, Propp's theory can be applied to all stories, including Arabic stories. Using his method in the study of the literature of nations, aspects of the art of storytelling, one realizes that it has been neglected in traditional criticism.  In addition, some theorists such as Dundz believe that Propp's analysis should be used to delve into the structure of literary formats such as novels and plays, comics, cinematic storytelling, and the like.  The story "Beirut's Tavahin" by Lebanese author Tawfiq Youssef Awad is one of the political-ideological Arabic novels that deals with issues such as protesting the unrest caused by the Lebanese civil war and racial discrimination in that country.  The character element, as one of the main elements of this story, has a colorful role in conveying the themes desired by the author. Considering the theme and the structure of the story of "Tavahin Beirut" in terms of the function of the characters, this paper intends to analyze the story based on Propp’s method in order to shed light on the new features and the dimensions of the characters introduced in this story.   The present study uses the descriptive-analytical method to examine the adaptation of Propp's method regarding the performance of the characters in the story of "Beirut Tavahin" by Yousef Awad.   After the story "Beirut's Tavahin" is examined based on Propp's approach, the answers are found to two research questions. Regarding the extent and the way the character works from Propp's point of view in the story of Tavahin Beirut, it can be said that although this story is similar to the structure of fairy tales in terms of narrative construction, character function and some formal features, only nineteen character functions can be considered sequentially. These functions include Absence, Prohibition, Deficiency, Violation, Linker moment, Decision making, Departure, Informing, The first giving function, Hero's reaction, Hard work, Trick, Evil, Complicity, Hero's location, Conflict, Pursuit, Liberation, Punishment, and Deformation of the hero. To interpret how these functions are presented in the story, it can be said that the arrangement of the characters' functions in this story is very different from their arrangement in fairy tales. As in this story, several functions occur in common.  For example, the functions of "violation of prohibition, connecting moment, decision-making, departure", "deception, evil, complicity" and "liberation, punishment" are intertwined due to the structural feature of the story. Moreover, the order of most of these functions is not in accordance with Propp's intended functions, and sometimes one function is manifested earlier and sometimes later than the other functions. The ending of the story is also different from fairy tales; the hero marries at the end of the fairy tale as a result of trying to do something difficult. However, the protagonist in the story of Beirut not only remains unmarried but also thinks of realizing his intellectual and political beliefs. In the analysis of the story, the second research question to answer was on how the seven roles of the character considered by Propp in the story. According to the course of events in the story, only three roles of "hero, villain and helper" match Propp's criteria. These three roles actually contribute to the realization of those nineteen functions. According to the results obtained from the analysis of the story of Beirut based on Propp's approach, the line of the story development can be summarized as follows: He is disturbed by the hero and his encounter with the villain. Then, at the end of the story, the original balance returns and the protagonist achieves self-consciousness by defeating the evil, finds his destiny and becomes a steady revolutionary. Therefore, in this story as well, according to Propp, the change of situation or event appears as a fundamental element in the narrative.

Narrative is as old as human history, and its scope has expanded to such an extent that today it has become one of the common concepts in the field of literature, especially fiction. Narratology is a new science which studies the structural elements of stories. This science examines different structures of a narrative, such as the narrator, plot, character, etc. It flourished in France in the 1960s and 1970s. Gérard Genette was a French structural critic and one of the most famous theorists in this field. According to him, narrative speech consists of three distinct levels that must be distinguished in any critical approach to fiction. One is the story being told, the report itself and how the report is presented. He believes, in analyzing the narrative, the three elements of time, mood and voice should be taken into consideration. He believes that time is important in the narrative in terms of order, duration and frequency. This research is based on the narrative criticism and uses a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the quality of the application of the time component and its dependencies such as order, duration and frequency in the novel “Mozakkerato Kalben Iraqien” written by Abdul Hadi Saadoun, who is an Iraqi novelist. The analysis is done according to Genette’s theory. The purpose of this study is to identify the author's narration techniques in using the element of time and to measure the difference between the time of the story and the time of the narration in the novel. Therefore, this article tries to answer these questions ‘What is the function of each of the three factors of Genette’s narrative time in this novel?’ and ‘What is the role of each of them in advancing the story? For this purpose, the theory of Genette narrative time has been introduced for the analysis ofvthe novel. The results of this study indicate that the association of the narrator's memories, the background representation of the life of the sub-characters of the story by him and the expression of the characters' hope for the future events have disturbed the linear and natural order of time in the narration of this novel, In addition, various descriptions, the use of the element of summarization and various types of frequencies have changed the narrative speed of this novel. In this novel, the chronology of the events is sometimes not observed, and the retrospective events and sometimes the foresight of the characters have caused the plot of the story to become time-consuming. Saadoun uses the external retrospective technique to introduce the characters of the story and mention the events outside of it. In the retrospective technique within the story, the narrator takes the reader to the past within the story by quoting memories. One of the functions of compound retrospective techniques is characterization; it is a different retrospection of the story because it refers to events that are not related to the storyline. In the technique of foresight, the author removes the ambiguity and complexity of the text and increases the reader's desire to read more. In his narrative text, Saadoun uses all the four narrative movements of Genette (i.e. descriptive pause, omission, summary, and dramatic scene); Therefore, the narrative has negative, positive and constant types of acceleration. In this novel, there is evidence for different types of frequencies with different values. The narrator has used the singular frequency in both the main and sub-events of the story. Frequency is somewhat evident in the novel because of the importance of the subject. Saadoun has sought to increase the speed of his narration by summarizing the text. In relation to the category of order and in terms of chronological order, the narrator reports his memoirs from birth to an old age. But, sometimes, the linear order of the events is not observed, and there are time-distortions in the text. The anachronisms of this text are manifested in both retrospective and futuristic aspects. Of course, the retrospective type has twice the volume compared to the futuristic type. A small number of external retrospectives have also been observed in the narration, which has a complementary ruling and helps to complete the main narration. Futurism, which has little expression in the novel, is often diagrammed in the form of the narrator's dreams, hopes, speculations, and predictions, or other characters in the story, which evoke the reader's passion. Regarding the category of duration and in terms of time lag, it can be said that the novel covers a long period of the narrator's life. However, the extensive use of the element of summary and sometimes various types of deletions has caused a positive acceleration of the novel and increased the speed of narration. Of course, a wide range of text time is also devoted to various descriptions, which, by stopping the story time, has caused a negative acceleration in the novel. Very few chunks of time are devoted to dialogues, in which case the text time has progressed normally.  Regarding the category of frequency, all the three types of frequencies are seen at the text level, but the singular and narrative types are much more impressive than the frequent type. The singular frequency, which revolves around both the main and sub-events of the story, includes narrations of events related to the narrator and the teacher as well as the narrator's encounters and separations with the sub-characters of the story. The frequent frequency function, which is very rare in the novel, has been motivated by people expressing their position on an event and by emphasizing the narrator of an incident. The frequent use of narrator frequency throughout the novel has, however, caused the narrative to be shortened and the text to deviate from monotony. This is because the narrator has avoided mentioning the events that happened to him or the characters of his story continuously at some point in time.

Fiction literature is constantly changing, and various schools have emerged in this field. The novel is the most prominent type of fiction and the product of a new era that has been accompanied by a wide range of progress and innovation in social, cultural and economic fields. Fiction literature evolved under the influence of this multidirectional growth. According to the requirements of each period, various literary schools emerged in the field of fiction. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, due to certain social and cultural conditions, realistic novels gained more attention. They focused on people and issues such as poverty, misery, jealousy and suffering and considered the reality of the matter and observation of accurate details regardless of innovation and imagination. With economic progress, cultural growth, and the emergence of modernism at the beginning of the twentieth century, however, novelists shifted from socialism and simple expression to individualism, attention to man himself and his mind, and complex and difficult language. Therefore, the writers of modern novels abandoned the common traditional language because they saw pleasure in unconventional expressions. After the world wars and the growth of population as well as the complexity of man’s life, modernist ideas became monotonous. So, with the advent of postmodernism and the requirements of the new age, a revision of modernist thoughts and lifestyles became necessary, and postmodern writers creativel started writing new works with different plots, narrative styles and writing techniques against normative rules. Meta-fiction is a type of postmodern story that is very different from pre-modern novels. Its most important feature is a conscious acknowledgment of the fabrication of the story. The postmodern current gradually entered the Arabic language and literature, and many Arab novelists such as Najib Mahfouz, Zakaria Tamer, Amjad Nasser and Majid Tobia turned to this new style of storytelling and wrote original postmodern works. Ibrahim Nasrallah, a well-known Jordanian writer with a Palestinian origin, is one of the authors whose postmodern background is evident in some of his works, such as "Barari al-Hammi", "The Child of Al-Muhamah" and the novel Harb al-Kalb al-Thani. This novel won the Arab Booker Prize in 2018 as a work that has fantasy and imaginative themes and narrates a full-fledged world war known as the Second Dog War. This article seeks to examine the storytelling technique of Ibrahim Nasrallah in this novel, to criticize its meta-fiction features, and to explore the purpose of using this storytelling technique.

This study is done in a descriptive and analytical manner based on library references. First, by enumerating the features of meta-fictions and explaining the structure of such novels, some meta-fictional features in the novel Harb al-Kalb al-Thani are examined. As a definition for meta-fiction novels, meta-fictions, unlike pre-modern novels that tried to depict the external and real world, do not reflect the real world. In fact, they consciously draw the reader's attention to their artificiality. Exposing industry and mocking precautions of fiction are the most important features of meta-fictions, which raises ontological questions about the relationship between the world of the text and the world outside the text (i.e., the worlds of the writer and the reader) (Waugh, 1996: 4).

The results of the novel analysis are as follows: - The novel Harb al-Kalb al-Thani is a genuine meta-story that has the main components of a meta-fiction. - The author has used meta-fiction techniques of short connection, multiple ending and printed and written playfulness to connect the text and the reality. He has also created a short connection in this novel by entering the text, assigning a role to the audience, using literary criticism terms and referring to the method of storytelling. - The author of the novel shows the reader that the novel has been made using meta-fictional techniques and reminds him/her that he/she is studying a pure story. The events of the story and the characters are imaginary and do not exist in the real world. - By entering himself and the reader to the story, the author denies the god-like authority of himself. Also, by creating a free ending, he has culminated the uncertainty that is visible in the whole structure of the novel, giving the reader the ability to make many different interpretations and to contribute to the creation of the story. The author emphasizes the novel's visual and physical dimension and the storytelling in general through printed and written playfulness in the text. He shows that the novel is a collection of printed words; the words and characters that flow from his mind. With this narrative style, he puts his audience between imagination and reality, hegemony and extravagance. He depicts the destructive competitive sense of humanity in the 21st century. By avoiding mere realism, he conveys his messages in the text of the novel in such a way as to challenge the reader's mind.

Seyed Mohammad Saeed Al-Haboubi is one of the contemporary poets who was born in Najaf in 1266 AH and died in 1333 AH. Al-Habubi's poetic themes were a description of nature and the sincere praise of religious friends and elders. His poetic genius along with the classical culture of Najaf granted his poetry a high position while avoiding degeneration. The present study examines the foregrounding in the divan of Mohammad Saeed Haboubi and helps the audience to better understand the concept of temporalization, stylistics and semantics. To express the ability and the art of grain in foregrounding poetic themes, verbal and semantic constructions are used. One of the aims of this research is to acquaint the audience with the formalistic aspects of the poet's poems, on which no research has been done yet. The poet, on the basis of imagination and emotion, brings up the repetitive words of the standard language to which the audience is accustomed in a new and fascinating way in the form of poetry. In his poetry, the change in the structure of syntactic sentences and devices gives new life to ordinary speech.The words acquire music and allitration that have a greater impact on the audience. Defamiliarization takes place in language too. The change in the prosodic weight of classical poetry to new poetry is one of the signs of abnormality. Poetry is a kind of de-familiarization in language, which, according to formalist theories, is divided into two categories: deviation and extra regularity. Jeffrey Leech has categorized these norms into two types: linguistic and semantic. According to Leach's theory, which novel element in Bean's poems has a higher value in semantic deviation?, what forms of stylistic and temporal familiarization have appeared in Habubi's poetry?, and how has the semantic novelty foregrounded the ambiguous words in his poetry? No research has been done on the foregrounding in Habubi's poems so far. So, this article intends to use a descriptive-analytical method to examine the poet's abnormality in constructing forms of aesthetics and reviving words based on Leach's theory. The research method of this research is qualitative and descriptive using content analysis, which is done to objectively and qualitatively explain the content and concept of written texts in a systematic way. In the present article, the studied components are foregrounding, semantic deviation, deviation, extra regularity, and semantics of Seyed Mohammad Saeed Haboubi's poems based on Leach’s theory. Due to the importance of foregrounding in the literature, this research is of significance. The subject of this research in the field of extra regularity is how the poet describes some elements of novel such as "ambiguity", "proportionality" and "repetition" to define "polysemy", "semantic network" and "phonology". In terms of rule-making, how did the poet use "archaism" to relate the text to ancient culture, and how did he use the words of astronomy to improve the music and the image? The research findings can be reviewed in several areas. The result of the research refers to the function of different types of "Equivoque "in explaining ambiguous words, motivating the reader and foregrounding the relationship between words and meanings. The poet has also used "archaism" in both literary and religious forms, using a variety of Arabic terms in the field of symbolism and astronomy to create poetic images. Lexically, the result of this research on "Al-Haboubi" poems refers to the dual relationship between word and meaning. The choice and arrangement of words in a poetic sentence indicates the semantic connection of the words with the history of the language of poetry. According to Leech's theory, "temporal deviation" in the form of "archaism" in his poetry has two religious and literary forms. The use of ancient words, in addition to recalling historical events in the reader's mind, has refreshed repetitive words. Regarding religious archaism, the common affairs of Muslims, such as Hajj, have a higher percentage than the other religious issues, such as the religion of the poet and the signs of unity among Muslims in monotheism. In literary archaism, he has referred to the words of the poets of the pre-Islamic period, such as Amr al-Qays and Zuhair ibn Abi Aslami. He also refers to the brilliant history of Arabic poetry and uses its methods to create novelty in the repetitive words of his time. Haboubi uses the words Arabic grammar and astronomy more than anything else in "Stylization". He used these words to create an imaginary rhyme array. In "Semantic Abnormality", he has used novel method for imaginative illustration and polysemy for the audience. Using an array of repeated letters and consonants, the poet has foregrounded the allitration of letters in his poem. He used observance better in poetry. In most verses, he has used a proportional array. It has become a semantic network of words to create a picture of a subject in the mind of the audience. Seyed Haboubi has used these devices to do foregrounding in poetry.

Sociological criticism is an appropriate method of analyzing literary works, including realistic novels, which studies and examines different classes of society, different behaviors, attitudes, practices and actions in the social structure within temporal and spatial periods. This view of criticism puts the society, the author, and the literary work in a living relationship and discusses and evaluates it. In fact, literary critics become fully aware by exploring the society created in the literary work at a certain time and place in which the characters originated, so that he can use the method of sociological criticism to interpret the literary work as the author's reaction to society. He examines himself and thus analyzes his perceptions of the environment and culture of that community. Sociological criticism of the contemporary period gradually spread to the Arab world, and writers in various Arab countries have so far used this method to criticize social unrest, women's rights, patriarchy, and cultural poverty in society. One of the modern approaches in investigating literary works is "sociological criticism of novels”. It analyzes the relationship between social structure and society changes in a fictional and literary content. As a matter of fact, sociological criticism of novels examines and criticizes the society's artistic reflection which is depicted in an imaginary world. This literary method with a feminine approach is a new attitude that has a wide potential to include the main and long-standing topics related to women.   Zahra Abdullah is one of the social realist writers in the Arab world who has used the method of sociological criticism with a feminine approach in the novel Ala Maedat ul-Da’ish. As a social work with a feminine approach, this novel concerns issues including captivated women’s rights, cultural poverty, patriarchy, social disorders under the name of Islam by men in ISIS. Furthermore, it illustrates the wounds and sufferings that women have been exposed to due to the occupation of Iraq. In this social novel, she focuses on the nature of the society, its function and impact on the personalities of women captured by ISIS, and the impact of the social, political and cultural situations of that time and place on the characters and events of the story. It draws a picture. In fact, the novel Ala Maedat ul-Da’ish, as a feminist literary work, criticizes the actions of ISIS men and their crimes in the name of Islam and against women. Results also The purpose of this study is to investigate and inspect ISIS's behavior towards women in the novel Ala Maedat ul-Da’ish, based on the framework of sociological criticism of novel in literature using a descriptive-analytical method. The other objectives of this study include discovering the image of ISIS based on Arabic novels from the sociological point of view of literature, examining and explaining the behavior of ISIS terrorist forces against women, and familiarizing those interested in the situation of women and ISIS-dominated society with ISIS-based novels. The findings of this study demonstrate that the author of the novel has been able to open a new window to the recognition of different aspects of Iraq's occupation and enslavement of women by ISIS. The findings of this study acknowledge that the authors of ISIS-oriented Arabic novels are able to open new avenues for the understanding of various aspects of the occupation of Iraq, trafficking in women, behaviors leading to suicide, physical and psychological abuse against women by ISIS forces. Causes of women’s tendency to ISIL terrorist group and the psycho-social injuries of the women affiliated to the group show the status of divorced women and single girls beyond traditional Arab communities and social and cultural disorders of Arab communities, especially in Egypt and Iraq.  In this article, to obtain the required data, the literature on the variables and the relationships among them were used by referring to the existing sources. The research method is the study of sociology books, sociology of literature and content analysis and several critical novels focusing on ISIL from a sociological perspective. The results show that the novel has a feministic nature; the men in the story are described as selfish, tyrannical, insensitive and lustful, who do not understand women and their femininity and are not aware of women except their bodies. The predominant demand throughout the novel is to create security and improve the situation of captive women.  Zahra Abdullah deals with all kinds of violence against women and considers the despair, failure and frustration of women effective in the commitment of these acts of violence. She describes women in the Iraqi society in such a way that they cannot achieve their true status in any religion, whether Islam or non-Islam.

Kamal AbuDib and Salah Fadhl are two well-known contemporary critics whose studies researches have played a prominent role in acquainting Islamic researchers with the modern criticism. Influenced by the structuralism school, these critics define the mechanism of text comprehension as a productive process. Since long, comprehension of the meaning has been a challenge for all those that endeavor to conceive the meaning of texts and writing signs. And now, despite the available literary characters and traces, the challenge continues. Besides, the difference of conceptions mostly shows the diversity of readers’ interpretation styles. This accentuated the necessity of aiming at the comprehension of meaning by finding solutions to decrease conflicting interpretations. Generally, the process of text comprehension is the result of interaction between three factors together, namely Writer, Text and Reader. In the sight of traditional critics, the meaning of a text is dominated by the author, but, in modern criticism, meaning has two other sides; that is, text and reader. Obviously, if the author holds the meaning, the result will be his or her domination, and, if the reader holds and dominates the meaning, the result is multi-meaning contents. According to this theory, based on the literary text purpose, one of these three elements can be used to create and comprehend the text. Based on a comparative analytical method, the present article seeks to explain the theoretical approach of contemporary Islamic critics to the process of "understanding the literary text". This is done through a theoretical study and selection of two contemporary scholars in the Arabic criticism. The research analyzes the theory of the contemporary Islamic scholars regarding the process of text comprehension according to an analytic comparative method by focusing on two influential scholars in the domain of critical structuralism in Arab countries. There is also an investigation of the influence level of traditional criticism in the development of their subjects. As for the influence of pattern in the text conception, Abuadib and Fadhl are selected to study for their structuralism criticism and the adaptation of their thoughts to selected literary texts on the purpose of defining the textual aspects and text conception processes and gaining the intended meanings. So, the following questions are sought to be answered:   1. What are the steps of the text realization process by Abuadib and Fadhl, as forerunners of contemporary Arabic criticism? 2.  How are they affected by traditional criticism heritage? 3. How much have they innovated in the accommodation of their critical theory to literary texts?   The results indicate that these critics define the meaning formation in four stages, despite differences in the use of traditional Arabic criticism. What distinguishes the quality of the structural study between these critics is the difference in the method of analyzing the relationships of partial elements. AbuDib fully utilizes the achievements of structuralism critics without neglecting the legacy of traditional critics, especially in syntax and rhetoric. Fadhl uses less traditional criticism and seeks only to do a multi-layered study of signification words based on the structuralism school. The study of the views of the two Islamic scholars in the field of understanding literary texts shows that both have a productive approach to understanding the meaning of the text. They believe that the process of understanding the text is to invent and create, and receiving meaning is considered as an action operation not a reaction operation. The study of the works of these two structuralist critics also shows that Abudib, in comparison with Fazl, believes more in preserving the traditional heritage of Arabic criticism along with using the concepts of structuralist criticism. However, Kamal Abdueb, by reflecting on the theory of Jorjani order, has a considerable sense of aristocracy over the legacy of Arabic criticism. Unlike Aboudib, Fazl has adapted the stages and analytical levels of the structuralist school to specific literary texts just a little and has sought to explain the theoretical angles of this school and other contemporary western schools. At the same time, Abudib has always tried to develop Islamic thought and culture by using the evidence from the Arabic literature. He has also paid special attention to the application of contemporary critical theories, especially structuralist critiques on Arabic culture and literary heritage and poetry. According to Abudib, the formation of the meaning in a literary text has four stages including identifying the main elements and the existing dualities, determining the central duality, examining and analyzing the existing relations between the dualities and elements of the text simultaneously and in two axes. These axes are companionship and substitution in the final and general meaning of the text using the relationships discovered between the existing elements. Besides, an analysis of the general structure of convergent literary texts is necessary to achieve a comprehensive structure. Fazl recognize semantic analysis stages of a literary work based on the school of structuralism that suggests the four levels of discovery and identification of the constituent elements of the text, classification of smaller units in general components, study of relationships between text elements based on contextual relations and reaching the general meaning. He recommends the study of the general meaning, of the text and the use of the achievements of other related sciences such as sociology and literary psychology for semantic networking.

Arabic micro-narrations are very short narrations, some of which have a volume of a few words to a few lines. Therefore, the small number of words, the compact bulk of the plot, and the short length of most sentences are the definite features of a micro-narrative. These features should not be considered the same as other literary types. Postmodernism represents a crisis in modernism. It has decomposition, dispersion, multiplicity, fluidity, and transience established in it. The possibility of any stability, unity, community, unity, longevity and permanence is accompanied by excessive skepticism and pessimism. Postmodern themes include ontological issues, chronological irregularities in the narration of events, adaptation, disintegration, incoherent association of ideas, fascination, vicious circle, linguistic disorder, lack of plot, linguistic and formal games, uncertainty, scattering and decentralization, absence or non-seeing oneself, indescribable, composition, contradiction, displacement, lack of rule, and short circuits. There is no doubt that every text is a system of codes and signs that, on the one hand, leads to the limitation of various meanings and, on the other hand, helps the audience not to be confused when reading the text. One of these codes is the editorial signs, which are such as dots, parentheses, colon, semicolon, quotation mark, hook, and three dots. They play important roles in the correct reading of a text and limiting the numerous meanings. But, in Arabic micro-narratives, there are examples where these editorial signs have not been used in their proper positions; rather, they are unconventionally appliedcation. This is exactly in line with the philosophy of postmodern literature. Postmodernism was a revolution in the second half of the twentieth century that, in addition to influencing the arts and humanities, entered the field of literature. Countless micro-narratives can be observed that have undergone fundamental changes and developments in the process of narrative development under the influence of postmodernism. Multiple narratives, anonymity of characters, instability, uncertainty, and references to the artificiality of micro-narratives are among those components. The various forms of written and visual abnormalities in such micro-narratives are such that this article is able to deal only with those editorial signs that are in line with postmodern philosophy; they cannot be used in the analysis of the stylistic function of micro-narratives. Therefore, first the various forms of unusual functions of these signs are pointed out, and then their alignment with postmodern philosophy and accompaniment in the direction of micro-narrative content are discussed. This article tries to find an answer to the following two questions by an analytical-inductive method and by focusing on nine sets of micro-narratives. How are the unconventional uses of editorial signs manifested in Arabic micro-narratives? What is the connection between the unconventional use of editorial signs in Arabic micro-narratives and the components of postmodernism? Also, in this study, the unusual uses of some of the symptoms are listed, and their association with the components of postmodernism is pointed out. The statistical population of this article includes 796 micro-narratives in nine collections by famous micro-narrators including Shimeh Al-Shamari, Maimon Harash (with two collections of micro-narratives), Hassan Bartal, Jamil Hamdavi, Jamaluddin Khediri, Abdullah Mottaqi, Mubarak Saadani and Haifa Sanooni. The method of the study is analytical-inductive. First, the four punctuation marks, namely three dots, parentheses, hooks, and quotation marks are discussed, which are most used in postmodern microstructures. Then, by citing various examples from contemporary Arabic writers, the connection between these signs and postmodern features are pointed out. Unusual use of editorial signs by any of the authors of postmodern Arabic micro-narratives is consistent with post-modernist components such as doubt and uncertainty, confusion and incoherence, participation of the reader in creating the text, violation of the author's death, emphasis on anonymity, avoiding a definite end, and unfinished meaning. After examining the micro-narratives, the unconventional use of writing symbols with postmodernist components was found in two forms. In the first one, changes were made in the shape and the form of those signs to show features such as uncertainty, violation of positive originality and preventing the audience from reaching the end. In the second manner, the form was preserved and only their system of signification was changed, which indicates the absolute non-end, the reader's participation in the creation of the text, the violation of the author's death, the emphasis on anonymity and the denial of do's and don'ts.