پژوهش نامه تاریخ اسلام
سال دهم شماره 39 (پاییز 1399)

immigration to Abyssinia, which took place at the beginning of the official invitation of the Prophet (PBUH) in the fifth year of the Besat, is of the most important events in the history of Islam. There are few historical documents of this immigration. Lack of information has prevented proper historical research about this immigration. Hence, the causes, manner and consequences of immigrating to Abyssinia are still unclear. The main issue of the article is what was the number, tribal affiliation and gender of the immigrants to Abyssinia? The answer to this question can explain the causes and consequences of immigration to Abyssinia. This article by considering the primary sources and organizing the historical data in the form of tables and graphs has shown that most of the immigrants to Abyssinia from the group of Ḥilf al-Aḥlāf were political rivals of Bani Hashem. The conversion to Islam of a large number of young people from Ḥilf al-Aḥlāf, who in the fifth year included about half of the new Muslims in Mecca, had caused the tribal chiefs to become much severe about them. Therefore, the Prophet (PBUH), who was unable to support those people due to tribal mechanisms, had ordered a group of new Muslims of this group to immigrate to Abyssinia. Statistical consideration of Abyssinia immigrants and their analysis based on the pre-Islamic Arab tribal structure indicates that the main purpose of this immigration was to stay away from oppression and torture and to preserve the new Muslim population of Mecca.

The transformation of the Islamic caliphate to the Umayyad dynasty took place in a short time after the death of Prophet Mohammad. This transformation became the source of many questions and reflections, especially since those who led such a change were Islam’s antagonists in the early years of prophecy and the rise of Islamic rule. Although, the role of the deep-rooted tradition of tribalism and tribal activist families cannot be ignored in this authorization, what captivates the minds of researchers is the convergent role of the characters who were known as the Arab’s geniuses in pre-Islamic times. This paper answers the central question of why Islamic society quickly turned to the pre-Islamic political system and surrendered to a government that was not very justified on the scale of Islamic values by adopting a transcendental approach to the role of heroes in history by assuming that the four geniuses, especially Mu'awiyah as a central figure had a Prominent role in the reproduction of the Arab political system.

Abu Jaᶜfar muḥammad ibn Ḥabīb Baḡdādī (245 AH) is a literary man and historian of the third century AH who has tried in genealogy, history, vocabulary and collecting poems of poets. Summary writing, mentioning names in various topics without mentioning the source are the features of his historiography. This research aims to find out that what sources ibn Ḥabīb used in compiling his works and why he was satisfied with the brevity of the data? findings of the research indicate that ibn Ḥabīb used the monographs of the mašāyik̠ and his contemporaries in compiling Al- muḥabbar and Al-munammaq. However, he was not merely a narrator of works and tried to correct the narrations of others and sometimes offered different opinions. Furthermore, his writings are not devoid of innovation. He also had other works with the titles of asmāᵓu al-muḡtālīn min al-ašrāff fī al-hhilīya and al-islām, muk̠talif-u-al-qabāᵓil wa muᵓtalifuhā, kunyat al-ššuᶜarāᵓ wa man nusiba ilā ummihī min al-ššuᶜarāᵓ .

Batayih is a swampy area between Basra and Wasit in the south of Iraq at the mouth of the Tigris River, where the local government of the Shahinians was formed by Imran ibn Shahin in 338 AH. The conflict between Batayih and Al-Buwayh who were settled in Iraq began with the declaration of independence of the Shahinians in Batayih. These conflicts started from the period of Mu'izz al-Dawlah and continued until the period of Az al-Dawlah. The present study, based on a descriptive-analytical method and relying on first-hand historical and geographical sources seeks to investigate the components of Batayih geography, which led to the hostile relationships between the Buyid dynasty and the Shahinians. The main issue of the research is what role did the geographical features of Batayih has had in the formation of the hostile relationship between Al-Buwayh and the Shahinians? The findings of the research indicate that the main factor in shaping these relationships was the geographical location and natural phenomena of Batayih. Natural phenomena such as swamps and reed-beds have made Batayih a natural refuge for insurgents against the Abbasid caliphate and the Buyid dynasty, and a criminal area. This situation disturbed the communication between the cities of the south of Iraq. In addition, Batayih was considered to be very fertile and rich economically, so dominating this region was very important for the Buyid dynasty.

Iran and Ottoman relations had started from the victory of Timūr Gurkānī on Bayezid I, the Ottoman king, in the battle of Ankara in 804. These relations continued with a mixture of peace and war until the end of the Qajar dynasty. The relations between Iran and the Ottoman during the Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar period have not been much considered due to the new political and social interactions in both countries. Therefore, this research through a descriptive-analytical method and relying on historical documents seek to answer the questions of what were the relations between Iran and the Ottoman in the Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar period and what consequences it had. Findings indicate that the Ottomans increased their hostility against the Iranian government by inciting the Kurds and Nestorians in border areas, taking illegal taxes from Iranians living in the holy shrines, humiliating Iranian pilgrims, and imposing restrictions on them. Despite some attempts by the Iranian government to prevent the Ottomans encroachment and even leading military troops against them, the internal conflicts and instability, Mohammad Ali Shah negligence and his confrontations with the constitutionalists, caused no benefit for the Iranian government's position against the Ottomans. Finally, with Russian and British interventions, Iran’s border problems were postponed to the joint Iranian-Ottoman commission to determine the definite borders.

Endowment is one of the highest and long-lasting manifestations of charity to people and helping the lower classes of society, including the poor. Undoubtedly, one of the most brilliant deeds of the Safavid period is the development of endowment. Benefactors, who were more of the powerful and the governing body classes of the society, often sought to eradicate poverty from society and interact with the poor. This research through a descriptive-analytical method seeks to answer the questions of what effect the endowment has had on the life of the poor of Iranian society in the Safavid period? What were the benefactors’ goals from interacting with the poor of Iranian society in the Safavid period? Findings indicate that endowment had a positive effect on the lives of the poor of this period. The endowment was supporting the poor on the one hand, and by showing a justified picture of benefactors was encouraging people to practice this tradition on the other hand. Benefactors in the Safavid period was often donating properties to help the poor to obtain the good prayers of them, please God, and show a justified picture as a Muslim and benevolent king.