Journal of Family and Reproductive Health
Volume:16 Issue: 1, Mar 2022

The purpose of this review was to investigate current knowledge of COVID-19 by highlighting its effect on female reproductive tract.

In this study, all articles related to the effect of SARS, MERS, and CoV-19 viruses on the female reproductive system from 2003 to 2021 were reviewed.

The coronavirus enters the host cell by binding to the enzyme that is most abundant in the host lung. The corona or spike (S) protein of this virus is the main tool for binding to the receptor in the host cell membrane and facility the entrance of CoV into the target cells. This receptor is the Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme-2 (ACE2), but the high expression of this receptor can be a mystery to increase infection in host cells. The overexpression of ACE2 in different tissues has a close connection to the severity of this viral infection. Infection in the female reproductive system requires more attention because it may affect the generation and future progeny by damaged gametes.

The existing evidence proposes that ACE2 is widely expressed in the reproductive tract includes: ovary, uterus, vagina, and placenta.

Our review aims to focus on identifying challenges faced by intellectually disabled women (IDW) in receiving gynecological and reproductive care and also highlights evidence based strategies to overcome those challenges.

We conducted a literature review discussing challenges faced by IDW in obtaining healthcare services by thorough search on various electronic databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus) starting from 2000 to 28 August 2021 excluding all non-english articles, reviews, editorials and letters to editor. The keywords used for search were “reproductive care”, “gynecologic care”, “intellectual disability”, “mental handicap”, and "mental retardation".

The existing literature review showed that IDW have difficulty maintaining menstrual hygiene and lack knowledge regarding contraception use and sexual health resulting in violations of their reproductive rights. Sexually transmitted diseases and cervical cancer are common among IDW due to their vulnerability to sexual abuse. Nulliparity in IDW increases their suspectibility to even breast cancer. Moreover, they face problems with sexually transmitted infection (STI) and cancer screening due to physical barriers for assessment, low socio-economic status, physician-patient communication issues and deficit in skilled providers. Short acting sedatives such as ketamine or midazolam can be used to overcome challenges faced with gynecological and obstetric examination. Finally forced sterilization and institutionalization has been a habitual practice as menstrual hygiene and pregnancy in IDW raise concerns on psychosocial challenges along with associated obstetric complications.

Reproductive and sexual health education including contraception use can be provided by using evidence based strategies involving use of pictures, animations and models by adequately trained healthcare providers including midwives. Further research involving IDW is needed to allow state-wise laws and policies to be created to mitigate the challenges and improve health outcomes in this population.

To evaluate systematically the therapeutic effects of five herbal medicines (curcumin, black seed, ginger, cinnamon, and flaxseed oil) on bone turnover markers as a primary outcome.

A comprehensive systematic search of the literature was conducted in the electronic databases consisting of the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, ProQuest, and Google scholar, as well as SID, Magiran, and Irandoc for Persian literature up to December 2020. All Randomized controlled trials and quasi-experiments evaluated the impact of studied herbal medicines on bone turnovers of Bone Specific Alkaline Phosphatase (BSAP), osteocalcin, C-terminal Telopeptide type 1 Collagen (CTX-I), Deoxypyridinoline (DPD) were analyzed.

Sixteen interventional studies comprised 968 participants included in systematic review. Ten of eligible studies with 603 participants included in meta-analysis. Curcumin, black seed and flaxseed did not have a significant effect on BSAP (SMD=-1.76, 95%CI: -6.85 to 3.33, p=0.50, I2=0.99, 6 trials, 241 participants), CTx (SMD=-0.17ng/mL, 95%CI:-0.43 to 0.09, p=0.21, I2=1.000, 5 trials, 216 participants), DPD (MD=0.82nmol/mmol, 95%CI:-0.05 to 1.68, p=0.06, I2=0.000, 2 trials, 67 participants), osteocalcin (SMD=-2.02ng/mL, 95%CI:-4.49 to 0.45, p=0.11, I2=0.79, Six trials, 229 participants). As secondary outcomes, femoral neck Bone Mineral Density (BMD) increased significantly (p=0.03, I2=0.12) but lumbar spine BMD didn’t differ (p=0.28, I2=0.97). Curcumin significantly increased total hip BMD (p<0.001, I2=0.12). QiangGuYin containing cinnamon as a combined Chinese medicine had significant effect on P1NP, β-CTx, and BMD.

Studied herbs except for QiangGuYin had no significant effects on bone turnover markers. Due to high heterogeneity between trials, further high-quality trials are suggested.

Triclosan is an aromatic organic compound with antibacterial and fungicidal properties, most often used in soaps, toothpaste and other cosmetics. The study aimed to analyze the influence of triclosan on the female and male reproductive systems and the consequences on fertility.

A review of the latest literature derived from PubMed and Google Scholar platforms has been made. After following the search strategy, applying inclusion criteria and analysis of the obtained results assessed by two independent analysts, 45 studies were included in the review.

Due to the similar structure of triclosan (TCS) to anthropogenic estrogens, TCS can interact with hormone receptors, affect hormone balance, and influence reproductive health and carcinogenesis. It has been noted that TCS might affect luteal cell progesterone production and disrupt ovarian function. Prenatal exposure to the chemical can have an impact on the reproductive system of newborns. TCS might be a risk factor for endometrial physiology and impair reproduction. TCS negatively affects the male reproductive system via interrupting steroidogenesis mediated miRNA (micro-ribonucleic acid) pathways. Negative effects of TCS on early development and embryogenesis in animals were evidenced. Moreover, TCS has the potential to promote carcinogenesis in human breast, ovarian, and prostate cells.

Potential impact of TCS on the reproductive system raises concern about its safety, due to its similar structure to anthropogenic estrogens and detection in the environment. TCS-induced disruption of hormone levels in the female and male reproductive systems may be the cause of impaired reproductive health, resulting in subfertility. Further investigations are required to evaluate the mechanisms and effect of TCS on human reproductive health.

The preconception health (PCH) strategy provides a unique opportunity to reduce risk factors for adverse reproductive outcomes before pregnancy. However, many reproductive-aged individuals continue to miss opportunities to improve their health before pregnancy occurs. This study, qualitatively explored strategies required for integrating PCH promotion interventions into routine reproductive health services from university students’ perspectives.

We conducted eight mixed-gender focus group discussions (FGDs) with students in eight schools and faculties in the University from March 2019 to June 2019. Audio-taped data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed manually using inductive content analysis.

Three major themes emerged from the analysis of transcripts: interpersonal behavior change strategies, institutional policy directives, public policy interventions, and three main categories with eight sub-categories. The study showed that PCH promotion awareness campaigns, context-relevant service delivery initiatives, institutional and public policy directives are critical approaches for the delivery and uptake of PCH interventions. Participants also recommended prepayment schemes, walk-in services, mobile PCH clinics, and PCH incorporation into university curricula as context-specific strategies for PCH promotion among university students.

PCH promotion could be feasible as an integral component of routine reproductive health services for university students. However, multi-level interventions at the student, health service, and institutional levels are necessary to increase awareness and facilitate the request and delivery of PCH services.

After developing breast cancer, women experience changes in their sexuality, femininity, and fertility. These changes lead to poor mental health and increased psychological stress. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of Good Enough Sex (GES)-based, couple-centered group counseling on reproductive and sexual concerns of breast cancer survivors.

This was a quantitative randomized controlled clinical trial (RCT) conducted at Omid Hospital, West Azerbaijan, Urmia, Iran from March 2018 to October 2020. After completing the informed consent forms, 100 women were assigned to the intervention and control groups (50 individuals per group) using a randomized block design. The intervention included four 90-120-minute sexual counseling sessions with 2 and 3 month follow-ups. The data were collected using the socio-demographic and clinical characteristics, the Persian version of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21), Reproductive Concerns after Cancer (RCAC) scale, and Female Sexual Function Index adaptation for Breast Cancer patients (FSFI-BC). Data were collected, from control and intervention groups, at three intervals; before, besides two months and three months post intervention, then were analyzed in SPSS 20 using descriptive and repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) test.

Significant reduction in the mean score of DASS-21, RCAC and improvement of FSFI-BC is reported between the intervention and control groups in favor of intervention group (P<0.001). However, no significant differences are observed within intervention group over two- and three-months post intervention (P > 0.05).

The designed Good Enough Sex (GES)-based, couple-centered group counseling effectively reduced reproductive and sexual concerns of females’ breast cancer survivors. Therefore, these training and counseling programs can be organized by relevant service centers to promote the reproductive health of women with breast cancer.

This study aimed to assess the exclusive breastfeeding and contraceptive methods among women delivering within 1-week of a positive test for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus- 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection.

In this study, 106 women with SARS-CoV-2 infection who were either asymptomatic or had mild disease were included. They were admitted for maternity care at a tertiary center between May to September 2020. The data was collected during their hospital stay and subsequently by telephonic or in-person interviews at 4-6 weeks and 8-10 weeks postpartum for contraceptive use, breastfeeding and use of facemask and hand-hygiene.

Sixty-three (59.4%) women had vaginal delivery and 43 (40.6%) required cesarean-section. Only one of the 98 newborns who were tested for SARS-CoV-2 turned out positive. Initiation of breastfeeding was delayed by an average of three days due to preparing the Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) report. Exclusive breastfeeding was practiced by 69% and mixed feeding by 26%.
Pre breastfeeding hand hygiene and facemask use declined after discharge (100% to 53.75% at
8-10 weeks postpartum). Out of 106, 86 (81%) women used no contraception at 8-10 weeks postpartum, continued with post-placental-IUD in 8/106 (7.5%) and tubal-sterilization during cesarean in 8/106 (7.5%) cases. Only 4/106 (4%) adopted alternative methods like barrier contraception.

The practice of exclusive breastfeeding remains unchanged among women who suffered from SARS-CoV-2 infection in the peripartum period while uptake of postpartum contraception was minimal except for the women who opted for long term contraceptive methods in the immediate postpartum period.

It is a fact that coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) infection mortality rate is high, but the question is "what is the role of other factors in maternal death with COVID-19?" The present study aimed to understand the factors that prevent women from timely use of healthcare services and also the potential weaknesses of the healthcare system that cause the lack of quality healthcare services for women.

This case-series study was performed in the southeast of Iran. In total, 12 cases of maternal deaths attributed to COVID-19 were identified through the Iranian Maternal Mortality Surveillance System. The required information was collected through existing verbal autopsy data sets. In some cases, the family members had to be re-contacted and healthcare workers were asked to supply the missing information. The root cause analysis method was employed for data analysis.

From March 2020 to March 2021, the deaths of 12 women were attributed to COVID-19. The majority of these women lived in rural areas (58%) and had a secondary school education level or less (83.3%). The contributing factors were divided into three categories: barriers at the community level (no prenatal care, lack of trust, lack of recognition of the severity of disease, and attribution of symptoms to something else), at the primary health system level, and at the hospital level (fear of staff of being infected, non-compliance with guidelines, lack of team working, and problem with telehealth).

The socio-cultural context and unmet healthcare needs hinder the utilization of available services. Moreover, factors at the level of the healthcare system prevent the timely detection and referral of women with COVID-19 to receive quality healthcare services. Using telehealth also did not help to appropriately triage pregnant women.

Non-tubal ectopic pregnancies (EPs) are rare and potentially life threatening. The number is rising due to various risk factors and there are no uniform guidelines in the management of EPs. This study was done to assess risk factors and challenges in the management of EPs.

This is a retrospective observational descriptive study that was done at SDM College of Medical Sciences & Hospital, Shri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara University Dharwad, Karnataka India. Data was collected from the medical records section of all the patients of non-tubal ectopic pregnancies managed in our hospital from January 2020 to June 2021. The collected data were analyzed for demographic characteristics, risk factors and management.

The incidence of ectopic pregnancies in our institute was 6-7 per 1000 pregnancies, of which 20% of the ectopic pregnancies were non-tubal. The incidence was higher than the other studies, which could be due to our center being a tertiary care referral center. Cesarean scar ectopic pregnancies were the most common accounting for 60% of cases. The management varied from conservative to minimally invasive surgery to hysterectomy hysterectomy with bilateral internal iliac artery ligation, depending upon the clinical presentation, duration of gestation, presence of fetal cardiac activity and hemodynamic stability. The other non-tubal ectopic pregnancies were cervical, ovarian, corneal and heterotopic. Cervical pregnancy beyond 12 weeks of gestation was rare which was managed by conserving the uterus.

Non-tubal ectopic pregnancies are rare. Early diagnosis requires a high index of suspicion if missed can lead to an array of complications leading to loss of fertility, morbidity, and mortality. The key step to avert the complications is early diagnosis and individualized treatment.

COVID-19 pandemic has affected all aspects of human life including social, economic, healthy behaviors and even individual relationships. This study aimed to investigate the effect of corona virus outbreak on assisted reproductive technology (ART) outcome.

In this retrospective and prospective cohort, 260 ART cycles of ovum pick up (OPU), fresh embryo transfer (ET) and frozen embryo transfer (FET) were evaluated in 223 women (from December 2019 to February 2020) and during COVID-19 outbreak (February and July 2020) in an infertility center. Primary and secondary outcomes of ART cycles including chemical and clinical pregnancy rate were evaluated.

The mean±SD (standard deviation) age of women was 34.17±6.56 years. Chemical and clinical pregnancy rates were 23.91% (33/138) per embryo transfer and 75.8% (25/33) per positive pregnancy test, respectively while ongoing pregnancy was seen only in 69.7% (23/33) of those with positive pregnancy test. Spontaneous abortion rate was 15.15% (5/33) per laboratory pregnancy. COVID-19 symptoms were reported in 2.83% and 15.38% of women during and after ART cycles, respectively.

It seems that COVID-19 pandemic has not negative effect on outcome of ART cycles except for cancelation rate due to COVID-19 that increased at the beginning of COVID-19 outbreak as it was unknown at that time and awareness was limited.