پژوهشنامه مذاهب اسلامی
پیاپی 16 (پاییز و زمستان 1400)

Whether the miracles of saints are epistemological or persuasive is a matter that solves many problems of practical mysticism. Decreasing the knowledge of the mystic to the possessor of miracles has damaged mysticism, and reduced the scope of their knowledge to the reports of their miracles. The outline of the present study on the evaluation of miracles are as follows: the evaluative study of miracles in the first periods of Islamic mysticism, the lack of connection between divine knowledge and doing miracles, the lack of a position in the lower realm of religion for miracles, the attitude of famous Sufis to the miracles as a distraction from the path towards God, their humorous view, and the encounter of the Holy Quran and the infallible prophets and imams with this issue. This article, by examining the descriptive-analytical aspects of the mentioned subjects, concludes that miracles have no epistemological value, and that the occurrence of the supernatural by the seeker or the mystic does not accelerate the process of journey to God and closeness to the truth, just as its non-occurrence does not disrupt them. Finally, although the Holy Quran describes the miracles of the prophets in order to persuade the deniers or reassure some followers, it always calls people to rationality.

The Shazeli order is the title of one of the Sufi orders founded by Abu al-Hasan Shazeli (593-655 AH). By establishing his school of thought, Abu al-Hasan sought to bring about a fundamental change in the Sufism of his time. He was critical of the method and logic of Sufis living in his day. Issues such as austerity, dignity, hearing, religiosity and sharia in the journey to God, occupation, and dress of the Sufis had the greatest share in his criticisms. He began to correct these matters by proposing a new way of journey to God, called the "way of thanksgiving". After Abu al-Hasan al-Shazeli, Abu al-Abbas Morsi, the caliph and his first-level student, Ibn Ataullah Sekandari, Ibn Ajibah, and Ahmad al-Zarugh, played the most important role in disseminating Shazeliyah. Today, this school of thought has been able to attract millions of Muslims and is very exhilarating. The present research, by studying Abu al-Hasan Shazeli's works and ideas related to the journey to God, has analyzed his beliefs and explored his mystical principles and foundations. Therefore, the love of God, solitude in the journey, the necessity of a sheikh and a mentor, remembrance of God and guardianship should be considered as the five principles of the journey to God in the Shazeli school of thought.

Sohrewardiyeh is one of the important dynasties of Sufism about which no proper and independent research has been done so far. In this research, we have studied this school of thought with a descriptive-analytical method.This Sharia-based sect, whose most influential sheikh is Shahab al-Din Omar Sohrewardi, was formed in Baghdad, and due to factors such as the training of great disciples, the emphasis of some elders on the migration of disciples, the cooperation of governments, and the emphasis on Sharia, in a short time penetrated many places, including India, Persia, and Kashan. After Shahab al-Din and Bahaullah al-Moltani, Sohrewardiyeh split into numerous factions and merged with Qalandar, as well as Shiism, and was weakened because of various reasons such as the tendency of some elders to Qalandar and the migration of many of them from Baghdad.

Sufism has received many confirmations, rejections and criticisms throughout its ups and downs. One of these critiques is the internal critique of Sufism by Ghavam al-Din Sanjani, the eighth and ninth century Khorasan mystic. Although he is a Sufi himself, he takes a critical look at Sufism in his book Jonun al-Majanin, trying to address its strengths and weaknesses, and to distinguish between true and false Sufis. Sanjani's critique in the theoretical aspect of Sufism includes disregard for the traditional sciences, religious and doctrinal deviation, the superiority of guardianship over prophecy, the removal of speech and duty, and following the devil. In practical Sufism, he also criticizes issues such as abandoning scholarship, humiliating scholars, antinomian, the removal of religious duties, heresy, asceticism, lust, the cloak of salus, dancing and singing, sheikh-centeredness, discipleship, hypocrisy, arrogance, laziness, and poverty. Despite strong criticism, Sanjani believes that Sufism is rooted in the original Islamic tradition, and that Sufis are the true followers and revivers of the tradition of the divine prophets, and that most of the deviations and criticisms are directed at false Sufis. Finally, his critiques are corrective and do not undermine the foundations of Sufism.

Purgatory life and the hearing of the dead are important and controversial doctrinal issues among the Maturidi and Salafi scholars. In this article, we examine this subject using their theological sources. The Maturidis consider the life of the saints in Purgatory elemental, and legitimize the intervention of the righteous in the existence by the permission of God. They emphasize the awareness of the Messenger of God (S) about the situation of the community in Purgatory, and acknowledge the request for help from the dead and their hearing and connection with the people of the world. However, by refuting the elemental life of the Messenger of God (S) and the righteous, the Salafis consider their physical life to be limited to the time of the questioning of the angels, and the presentation of the deeds of the community to the Prophet (S) and others by angels. Salafi theologians, by rejecting the request from the Prophet (S) in Purgatory, consider the occurrence of miracles by the righteous as a divine act; however, they believe that asking for help from the dead righteous in unusual deeds is polytheism. Ibn Taymiyyah, believing in the hearing of the dead and their connection with the pilgrims, considers asking for help from them as a polytheistic act. But most Salafis have denied the hearing of the dead and their connection with the people of the world.

The purpose of this article is to examine Nader Shah Afshar's diplomacy with the Ottomans regarding the Jafari Religion with reference to the Najaf Congress. The main issue is how Nader Shah communicated with the Ottoman government. The Safavid rulers, by officially supporting the Shiite religion, caused religious and political problems in the Islamic world. However, the invasion of the Ghaljas of Kandahar, mistakenly called the Afghans, led to the fall of the Safavid rule. After his coronation, Nader Shah Afshar not only did not officially support the Shiite religion, but also reduced it to a sect with his ideas, and in addition to political and military issues engaged further in diplomacy with the Ottomans,. This article explores features such as the negotiation of the Jafari religion, the allocation of the pillar in the Kaaba, the negotiation agreement, and the Najaf Congress.

Shah Waliullah Dehlavi is one of the most important Sunni thinkers in India in the recent centuries who has had a great impact on later schools of thought by raising controversial issues on various doctrinal topics, especially in the field of prophethood of the Prophet (S). For the first time, he considered the Quranic revelation to the Prophet (S) to be a dream, while neither it was compatible with any of the historical and interpretive propositions nor the Prophet (S) or his Companions had claimed that Quranic revelation was a dream. Regarding the Prophet's appointment to prophetic mission, there are two types of invitations: a mission to Bani Ismail and a mission to the whole world, while the scholars believe in the secret invitation and then the invitation of relatives and finally the public invitation. As for the Prophet's knowledge, Dehlavi is one of those who believed in the distinction between worldly affairs and religious and otherworldly affairs in prophetic behavior and hadith. Moreover, he believed in the oversights of the Prophet (S), which has many drawbacks. In the end, Dehlavi, based on weak narrations, believed in the ijtihad (reasoning) of the Prophet (S) and considered it permissible in place of revelation, while this claim requires distrust of the Prophet's words, and contradicts the explicit verses of the Quran.

In this study, we examine the views of the early Mutazilites and neo-Mutazilites on the historicity of the text, the Quran, and the teachings of religion in order to understand the commonalities and differences between these two schools of thought. The neo-Mutazilites believe that the text of the Quran is a cultural and historical product, influenced by the culture of the age of revelation, and does not contain a message for the general public in other ages. They offer the reasons for their claims as follows: the relationship between the Quran and the culture of its time, the Meccan and Medinan verses, the causes of the revelation, the abrogator and abrogated verses, the historicity of some Quranic teachings in the field of jurisprudence and Sharia. In contrast, the Mutazilites, believing in the inability of the intellect to achieve audio tasks, reject the historicity of the Quran, and consider the expression of rulings as a philosophy of the necessity of revelation, and their main approach is to accept verses and rulings expressed in the Quran and tradition.

Speech is a common attribute between man and God. In the Holy Quran and narrations, speaking is considered as one of the attributes of God. Although the divine word has different levels and covers the entire sphere of existence, Islamic thinkers, including the Asharites and Mutazilites, have only paid attention to some of its levels. As a result, the verses and narrations were not explained correctly and this led to a lot of bloodshed in the Islamic world due to the involvement of political motives. Sadr al-Din Shirazi, on the basis of the principles of transcendent wisdom such as the originality and gradation of existence, the theory of intellects and the three worlds of existence, on the one hand claimed the setting of words for the soul of meanings and on the other hand, abolished the idea of limiting the divine word to the verbal word and proved the four main stages for the divine word, namely the emergence of the word in the worlds of names, intellect, example and nature. His analysis of the nature of the divine word can provide a more complete explanation of the verses and narrations related to the divine word, and suggests a new solution in the wide-ranging conflict between the Asharites and the Mutazilites in this field.

Luster Tile is one of the most beautiful and expensive tiles produced in Iran during the Islamic era. The peak of this kind of tiling art in Iran dates back to the 7th-8th centuries AH. and a period of about 150 years. During this time, many historical monuments in Iran, especially the tombs associated with Shiites, such as the shrine of Imam Reza (AS), were decorated with these tiles. Unfortunately, over time, and especially in the last century, many of the tile decorations of these buildings have been destroyed or removed from the body for various reasons, such as protection or even profit, and entered directly or indirectly into domestic or foreign museums, a trend that still continues. Therefore, it is of importance to study and know more about these tiles from different aspects. One of the lesser known aspects of these tiles is the religious writings in some of them, which partly reflect some of the religious beliefs of the people of that time. Therefore, the main purpose of this paper is the analytical study of these inscriptions. The findings show that the religious inscriptions of this type of tile are mostly composed of some Quranic verses, which are mainly about topics related to the worship of the One God, creation and the Day of Judgment.

Analysis and study of Mirza Mahdi Isfahani's intellectual foundations on the issue of bodily resurrection will pave the way for understanding his theory, considering the narrated evidences. Isfahani's abundant interest in the appearance of texts has led to a view similar to the theory of Islamic theologians. But the foundation of Isfahani thought is based on issues such as the creation of human beings in the world of pre-existence, determining the nature of human beings, entering the world and mixing natures and then leaving the world and establishing the resurrection based on the worldly body. Sometimes Isfahani considers the source of understanding of these matters as divine grace and mercy, and sometimes justice and fairness. Therefore, two issues are very important and fundamental in his intellectual system: 1. Special attention to texts without semantic interpretation; 2. Need to apply analysis and explanations on resurrection to verses and narrations. Isfahani methodologically has a pluralistic approach and sometimes a unitary approach to the issue of physical resurrection. In other words, he seeks to reconcile methodically his views with verses and narrations, and has advanced this basis to the point that he has attributed his transcripts to the lights of the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) (Household of the Prophet).

The main question of this research is: What is Fakhr Razi's view on the nature of divine speech? To answer this question, Fakhr Razi's view on speech in general, including the speech of God and creatures, and the speech of God in particular was examined. To understand the nature of God's speech in particular, we have shown that there is no disagreement among Muslim thinkers about the verbal speech of God, but there is disagreement about the self-speech (Fakhr al-Din Razi's belief). Fakhr Razi is known to believe in the self-speech, but in various works he has proposed other views i.e. the speech meaning creation, the knowledge of God and the wonders of creation. He believes that verbal speech is temporal, but self-speech is pre-eternal. He is somewhat influenced by Ibn Sina about the divine speech. His view of the self-speech was criticized by thinkers after him. Unlike the Mutazilites, he believes that the Quran is uncreated and pre-eternal.

Ibn Sina, according to the general rule of "everything that has a quiddity is an effect", denies that God has a quiddity. But Fakhr Razi believes that because "existence" is abstract homonymous, so as its application in man affects the quiddity, in relation to God, it affects His quiddity. Hence, God has an essence. According to Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Fakhr al-Razi's view arises from the fallacy between the rules of essence and existence, the rules of the mind and the outside, and the transmission of the rule of concept to the instance. It is true that according to philosophers, existence refers to its instances in one sense, but it does not need that the correlates of existence have the same essence. This article explains and analyzes the issue from Fakhr Razi's point of view in two parts: A) Providing an argument to prove the quiddity of the necessary existent, B) Criticizing the theory that the necessary existent does not have quiddity, and expressing Nasir al-Din Tusi's critique of Razi's view along with analyzing and criticizing the reasons of both thinkers.

In Iranian criminal law, sharia and the documents of international criminal courts, the institution of repentance is one of the most desirable methods of return and remorse of criminals and rehabilitation of their personality, which leads to the elimination or reduction of punishment. This influential institution, which was approved in 2014 following the famous verdicts of Imami jurists in Articles 114 to 119, occurs, without the need for any special legal formalities, only through the serious and real will of the offender to leave sin. To enforce it, however, the legislature has enacted rules such as heartfelt repentance, non-delay, genuine remorse, and a serious determination to seek redress. But in the documents and verdicts of the international criminal courts, there is no reference to the institution of repentance, and only remorse is considered as one of the mitigating qualities, which is very similar to the institution of repentance in Iranian law. According to the penal code, the scope of repentance is in the majority of hadd offences, but in tazir offences, it can be applied as mitigation of punishment and rarely as the fall of punishment. This is provided in the formal rules. Hence, the courts have a clear position in the face of the institution of repentance.

Drug trade is a network linked to criminal organizations. Given that the proceeds must be purged in some way, the appropriate action in the face of money laundering is in fact the fight against other organized crime, of which this phenomenon is a prelude and part. According to jurists, the proceeds of drug trade are examples of money laundering. In this paper, we have studied, analyzed and criticized this issue in a comparative way based on library sources, and we have concluded that in money laundering, the proceeds obtained from buying and selling drugs is forbidden from a jurisprudential point of view, and that the religious teachings from the beginning, by considering the income from the forbidden acts as haram and condemning haram eating, have tried to fight against the usefulness of this crime.

Judging between the originality of peace or war is one of the most thought-provoking issues in Islamic political thought. However, proving the originality of peace in political jurisprudence is more sensitive. Imami jurisprudence has usually dealt with the issues of war and peace against the infidels, and has not spoken comprehensively and independently about the People of Qibla (Muslims). The main question of the present study is: "In the face of various Islamic groups, including insurgents, rioters and opponents, is the originality of peace preferred or the originality of war or none? The most important fruit of the establishment of the principle of peace is to explain the ruling of suspicious cases in disputes between the People of Qibla. The hypothesis of this research is that by examining the opinions of the early and late Imami jurists, and considering the fixed jurisprudential principles in their view, the originality of peace with the people of Qibla can be accepted as a general principle in all disputes. The present article has explained the originality of peace by describing and analyzing the research findings based on Imami jurisprudential sources.

The use of weapons is one of the prominent factors of power for nations and governments that plays a significant role in their lives. The sale of weapons to the enemies leads to their military strengthening and endangers the security of the Islamic society. The narrations forbid the sale of weapons to the enemies, but sometimes the situation of the Islamic society is such that the sale of weapons to the enemies not only does not endanger the unity of the Islamic society, but will also benefit the Muslims. The jurists disagree about the ruling on selling weapons to the people of the domain of disbelief, and their views can be categorized into five theories: 1. It is absolutely forbidden 2. There is a distinction between the time of war and peace 3. The sale depends on the opinion of the ruler of the Islamic society, who decides based on the circumstances and requirements of the time and place and the interest of the Islamic society 4. The prohibition depends on the intention to strengthen the infidels and the enemies provided the sale strengthens the enemies 5. It is forbidden to sell weapons to infidels always and to dissident Muslims only during war. The authors of this article believe that the ruling on the mentioned issue depends on the opinion of the Islamic ruler, because it is one of the political and governmental issues on which he decides considering the requirements of time and place as well as the interest, expediency and situation of Islamic society. Using descriptive-analytical method, this research examines and critiques the reasons and documents of different views of Imami Shiites and Sunnis.

One of the rules of jurisprudence is to take a proxy for the acts of worship, such as the proxy prayer on behalf of the dead. According to the basic rule, the five denominations agree that it is not possible to represent other people in acts of worship, such as prayer, during their lifetime, and it is obligatory for one to do them himself. But after death, according to the Imami view, the dead benefit from the missed prayers performed by the hireling and the proxy. Therefore, the missed prayer of the dead can be performed on their behalf. According to the famous jurists of the Sunni denominations, representation in prayer is not correct even after death, and the dead do not benefit from the actions of others. Their proofs for this ruling are verses from the Holy Quran, the tradition of the Prophet (S) and the Companions, consensus, and the issue of the contradiction between representation in worship and self-cultivation. By examining the arguments and views of some jurists believing in the permission, as well as scrutinizing the evidence proving the permission of representation of the dead, the view of the correctness of representation of them is strengthened.

The sacred tradition of marriage from the beginning of human history has always been more or less influenced by environmental, social, and religious conditions. One of the most basic conditions of marriage, from the Islamic point of view, is the permission of the guardian of the girl. However, in case of absence of a close guardian and the transfer of guardianship to a distant guardian or the judge or the girl herself, jurists of Islamic denominations have different views. If the guardian's absence is interrupted i.e. it is impossible or difficult to reach him, three solutions have been proposed: transferring the guardianship to the distant guardian, transferring the guardianship to the judge, and leaving the guardianship to a mature and wise girl. If the absence is uninterrupted (access to the guardian is possible), the following four solutions have been suggested: transferring the guardianship to the distant guardian, transferring the guardianship to the judge, leaving the guardianship to the girl and not transferring the guardianship, and waiting for the close guardian to return. In case of interrupted absence of the guardian, it seems that the solution of transferring the guardianship to the distant guardian is more in line with narrative and rational arguments, and if the absence is uninterrupted, it is better to wait for the guardian to return and take charge of the marriage, especially since in the present age it is easy to return to such a situation with ease in traffic.

"Narrative reputation" is one of the topics in the science of the principles of jurisprudence. Scholars in this field have sometimes defined "narrative reputation" as the multiplicity of narrators, and sometimes as the multiplicity of narrations. According to one definition, "narrative reputation" is a hadith that is narrated by many narrators, of course, in such a way that their number does not reach tawator (mass transmission), and thus it causes the reputation of the narration. The title "narrative reputation" was not found in Sunni sources, but the term "famous narration" is used instead, which has the same meaning as "narrative reputation". In order to know the status of "narrative reputation" and its application among Islamic denominations, we conducted a descriptive-analytical research using library sources, which reached the conclusion that according to the consensus of the jurists of different denominations, "narrative reputation" is one of the preferences in accounts conflict. From the point of view of most Sunni jurists, famous narrations provide reassurance and their applications in the preference between conflicting accounts, in the conflict between accounts and deductive analogy, as well as in abrogation and specification are mentioned with differences.