فصلنامه پژوهش های تاریخی
سال سیزدهم شماره 3 (پیاپی 51، پاییز 1400)

Oral history is in its quantitative heyday in Iran. However, this heyday is not parallel with theoretical and methodological discussions. This trend can undermine the creditability and status of oral history in the future. Ignoring the theoretical and methodological discussion and overgrown production of works under the title of ‘oral history’ in Iran will endanger this field in general. The questions of realm and approaches of oral history are among the neglected or at least not fully noted matters among oral historians. In the present study, it is assumed the readers know the identification of oral history and its differences with memories and oral tradition, and they are not mentioned to avoid repetition. The author has presented two subjects that can have effective approaches for the researchers and empower them by good knowledge in the field of oral history. In the present study, two questions are answered: How extended is the realm of oral history? And which people and subjects can be included in it? Then, three notable theoretical approaches are discussed. Oral history like many other fields of humanities is an interdisciplinary one. So, considering any discipline it will have different approaches. In this study, notable and compatible approaches with oral history are assessed.

Oral history, as a new phenomenon in historiography, has gone through a tortuous path for more than seven decades to reach its current state. In its ups and downs, it has passed through certain states and has treaded in numerous arenas. A history researcher needs to discern how far oral history has extended in terms of time, space, and topic. When it comes to speech and the quality of being oral, whether we like it or not, certain disciplines such as linguistics, anthropology, and psychology are also involved. In the face of different disciplines, oral history adapts to past and present theories in various situations. Awareness of the theoretical context and basic knowledge of sciences at any time tells us that oral history can relate to many of these theories and even strengthen them. Of course, oral history is not able to relate to all theories, but it sometimes borrows dimensions from them. The impromptu nature of oral history has allowed it to be weighed by different theories. It is interesting that sometimes in several opposite and contradictory theories, oral history can be defined. The present study is an attempt to see how far the scope and realm of oral history extends, and how it is related to the three approaches of functionalism, structuralism, and critical realism. Of course, it must be kept in mind that oral history and its question system determine in which theoretical school, strategy, approach, and method should be followed and which position should be obtained. 

In this descriptive study, the scope of oral history and three approaches of functionalism, structuralism, and critical realism in the face of oral history have been studied. 

The result of the present study indicates that the scope and realm of oral history are divided into three dimensions: 1) Temporal (encompassing two generations or 160 years), 2) Spatial (location of events), and 3) Topical (infinite number of topics, depending on the capacity of mind, memory, conditions of presence and action or witnessing events, happenings, and phenomena). In examining the functionalist approach and its relationship with oral history, it was determined that oral history, given its interdisciplinary nature, can have a reciprocal effect in the face of some other approaches in humanities. Functionalism is concerned with systemic and organic theory, but it has a positivist illusion and considers reasoning and mind as merely bodily functions of mankind. Oral history, therefore, is influenced by the mind and the dignity of human rationality is contrasted with functionalism. On the other hand, it considers functionalism of the society superior to man and considers man as a function of the society. The system of oral history, considering the inherent characteristics as well as the spiritual and psychological traits of human beings, does not reflect this superiority, and merely considers human beings and society as overlapping.Reflecting on the prevailing views of structuralism, it can be construed that society comprises various relationships, social ideas, and structures. In the field of history, structuralism sees phenomena as a coherent and interconnected whole, and because it reduces the fields of study of history, it kind of becomes a reductionist approach. Therefore, structuralism can be criticized in this regard. In oral history with a structuralist approach, human action, advantage, and consciousness are degrade and the networked relationships of structural elements are placed at the center of historical phenomena.In structuralist oral history research, attitudes, and explanations are based on the participants’ mental views, based on the narrator’s understanding of the relationships between phenomena. Research in such a situation is a bottom-up one. Narrators' narratives are the result of experience, interaction, and relationships between elements of society, and putting them together can even lead to a theory. By examining the critical realist approach, it can be considered that oral history is a window towards the real world, and can serve as a thread for the mental fabric. To reflect on the world and reality, perception is needed as a material that is only possible through oral history. Oral history seems to be fully analyzable from the perspective of critical realism.Given critical realism, oral history passes through the mind to discover the world and exploits language, thought, and perception en route. A multi-layered world is formed from complex and intertwined objective layers. Oral history enables critical reflection by counting data and retrieving sensory experiences from the world. Critical realism, then, brings oral history closer to gaining knowledge of the existence and deepening knowledge of the world and its surroundings.

Islamic heritage reflects the teachings of the Holy Prophet Mohammad in biography (Syrah) and narrative books. One of the most prominent Sunni narrative references which reflected the holy prophet's teachings is Bokhari's Sahih (translation: credible). Bokhari has attributed a considerable number of narrations regarding Fiqh and faith to the Holy Prophet in this book. Hence, the goal of this study is to evaluate Bokhari's narrations about Islamic beliefs and Fiqh in this book. The importance and necessity of such a study increase considering the credibility of Bokhari's Sahih amongst the Sunnis as the most credible and reliable book after the Quran. This study examines Bokhari's historiography considering the deeds and actions he attributed to the holy prophet regarding Islamic Fiqh and Faith through library research and the descriptive-analytical method. Based on the findings, the narrators and the implications of Bukhari's hadiths and the predicates presented therein, their conflicts with other predicates recited by him, other historical reports, Quran, and other widely accepted beliefs of the Muslims bring his historiography into question. We demonstrated our evaluation by examining Bukhari's Fiqh and faith narrations containing notions such as the holy prophet deeming idles sacred before his prophecy, doubting his prophecy, learning about the Judgment day's events from the Jews, being influenced by the Jews in fasting in the Ashoora day (10th of Moharram), and not observing the Islamic rulings and laws.

According to the Holy Quran, God has set his Prophet an excellent role model, so Islamic scholars have tried to record narrative predicates about the teachings of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him). One of the most prominent narration references of the Sunnis that has recorded the Holy Prophet's teachings is Sahih (of) Bukhari. Since there are so many interactions in the realm of Beliefs and Fiqh attributed to the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) by Bukhari in this book, this study aims to assess and evaluate his narrations about Islamic beliefs and Fiqh as recorded and reported in this book, based on the methodological criticism of historiography. This issue is of paramount importance considering the position of Sahih Bukhari amongst Sunnis as the most reliable and credible book after the Holy Quran since it is one of the oldest inclusive narration books (a.k.a. Jawami) of Sunnis and one of their primary references. The vast number of narrations recorded and the inclusiveness of the subjects make this even more paramount. None of the studies done on the subject of Sahih Bukhari have ever criticized Bukhari's historiography or reviewed the narrations attributed to the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) using a historical method.  

Using the library research approach and descriptive analysis, this study tries to assess and evaluate the quality of Bukhari's historiography considering the actions and interactions he has attributed to the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) regarding the realm of Islamic beliefs and Fiqh.
The present study evaluates ten samples chosen from historical predicates mentioned in Sahih Bukhari, projecting an overall image of his historiography. 

This study concludes that Bukhari's approach is narrative historiography, one of the oldest and most prominent manners for recording history. Bukhari has mentioned various narrations regarding historical events and news using this method. There are different reasons to believe that Bukhari has chosen his narrations and narrators selectively and biased and has presented a false picture of the Holy Prophet's (peace be upon him) beliefs and Fiqh teachings.The findings of this study regarding the contents of Sahih Bukhari show that the book focused on the subjects of beliefs, Fiqh, history, ethics, and interpretation (of the Holy Quran), and Bukhari has narrated parts of the Holy Prophet's (peace be upon him) sayings using the ascribing method. In this study, the faith narrations are about the Holy Prophet's (peace be upon him) activities before his Prophecy when facing idles and afterward regarding His Prophecy and when facing the Jews.Eventually, Bukhari's performance regarding the belief narrations focused on his reports about the pre-prophecy period of Prophet Muhammad's (peace be upon him) life, the beginning of his Prophecy, and during it. Bukhari attributes admiring idles and offering sacrifices for them before prophecy to his Holiness. The portion of Sahih is dedicated to the pre-prophecy period and the beginning of the prophecy is relatively modest. Narrations mainly focused on the description and interpretation of the Prophet's teachings during his Prophecy, the inclusiveness of which in the realm of beliefs and Fiqh is abundantly clear. Based on the narrations mentioned by Bukhari, we could point to predicates such as Jews influencing his Holiness and their command over his Holiness, the Jews bewitching his Holiness, and his holiness' admitting that prophets before him were superior to him.The findings of this study about authenticity show that some narrators of historical reports in Sahih Bukhari were related to Jewish scholars and their reported narrations. In some cases, the nature of the relationships persuaded them to recite Ka’b al-Ahbar's sayings instead of those of the Holy Prophet’s (peace be upon him). One of those narrators reported even ‘Isra'iliyyat’ and was well known for it. As for content, there are some discrepancies between reports of Bukhari and those of other historical narrations or other historical events. Some of the historical predicates presented by Bukhari are in conflict with the Holy Quran or even common sense, all of which take the author to believe that Bukhari’s account of the Holy Prophet’s (peace be upon him) beliefs and Fiqh issues is incorrect.

Palm cultivation and date production were considered as the main occupations of farmers and gardeners of the tropical regions of Fars Province during the early Islamic centuries. The present study was conducted from the perspective of historical geography based on human interaction with its surroundings. Therefore, palm cultivation, date production, and various areas depending on palm-related livelihoods were studied in Fars Province during the mentioned period. This research was a descriptive-analytical study performed by referring to library resources and conducting a field study in some areas of the province cultivating palm trees with palm irrigation structures. In the early Islamic centuries, various regions of the province were regarded as tropical regions where palm trees were of great importance. Some references have considered this province, especially Khark Island, as the origin of all palm trees in the world. Persian books have reported “palm” under the name of “khormabon,” but the southern Iranian people have used to call palm trees “Mokh”, “Mogh”, and “Mog”, which are some words rooted in the Pahlavi language. Resistance against drought, adaptation to warm climate, and high fruiting rate are the important natural features of this tree. Historical and geographical sources, as well as the remaining old palm gardens, suggested interaction of people living in Fars Province with their surrounding geography and their attempts to establish many palm gardens. In old Fars Province, there were settlements called “Moghistan”, “Mokhdan”, and “Moghdan”, indicating that people planted palm trees and had palm gardens. Moreover, the rise of gardens in this region mainly meant that palm trees were planted here as well.In the tropical regions of Fars Province, people used all parts of a palm tree in their lives. In fact, many of the livelihood patterns of people in this area were taken from the palm tree. Palm played an important role in the architecture of houses as the trunk of this tree was used in their ceilings. In some places, people built their houses with the foliage of this tree. In the tropical regions of Fars Province, the word “pish” (or pesh) meaning palm leaf was adopted from Pahlavi language. Palm leaves had an important impact on the emergence of handicrafts and supplies needed in the people’s lives in this area. Brooms, fans, ropes, and various containers were among the items made with palm leaves. A variety of instruments made from palm leaves indicated the vast extent of its use and its important role in the people’s lives in the tropical lands of Fars Province. This reflected people's creativity in using a natural phenomenon like a palm tree and making widely used tools from its leaves, thus indicating their interaction with the natural phenomena around them.Dates are the main product of palm trees. “Khorma” (Persian word for date) is again a Pahlavi word. Dates and fresh dates (Rotab) were important products produced in the tropical regions of the province. Since this region was always threatened by drought, dates played an important role in providing food for people due to their abundant energy and long durability. In some periods, they were considered as the only fruit for people. Their pureness and sweetness led to their abundant use in nutrition. Different products, such as date honey and date syrup, were produced from dates. Dates were widely used with dairy and Tahini. They were also used to make different dishes, sweets, and Halva, which were among the common traditional foods of the province. They were of medical importance and used as medicine for treating some diseases as well.Dates were important economically and were among the main export items of the tropical regions in this province and a source of income for a number of people. During the years of famine and pest attack, dates  were imported from Basra and Bahrain to be used in the province. Due to trade relations, dates were also exported from the Persian Gulf countries to India and China where such palm trees were not planted.One of the important effects of palm trees on the people’s lives in the tropical regions of Fars Province was coinage of a large number of words and terms related to them, indicating that palm trees had more influence on the lexical richness of literature and culture of this land compared to any other trees. The importance of palm trees led to preservation of many of these words in the folklore and traditions of these people throughout history. Therefore, it could be said that palm tree was the most important tropical tree in Fars Province and date was the major tree crop in this region.

The Persian Gulf has long been home to many ethnic groups due to its migratory nature. For a long time, because of shipping and trade, there has been a kind of interaction and cooperation between the population living there, regardless of any religious affiliation or prejudice. One of the groups with a long history in the region is the Jews. Despite their small number, they have played an important role in the tumultuous history of the Persian Gulf and its islands and port. The present study tries to analyze the history of the presence of Jews in the Persian Gulf using a descriptive-analytical method based on library documents, and to answer the question of why and how from the middle of the Safavid period the role and position of the Jews in the socio-economic relations of the ports and islands of the Persian Gulf has diminished.The results of the study show that the beginning of the decline of the socio-economic status of Jews in the Persian Gulf dates back to the presence of the Portuguese in the region and the Safavid domination of the Persian Gulf coast intensified this. Influenced by domestic religious polities and international trade relations, the Safavid government continued the same policy and paved the way for the decline of the Jewish community in the Persian Gulf.

Jews, as one of the religious minorities, have long played an active role in the social and economic life of Iran. This historical background continued in the Safavid era and during this period this group continued its social life in various fields. The shores of the Persian Gulf are one of the areas where Jews lived, traded, and worked. This study seeks to examine the impact of the policies of the Safavid government on the decline of their social and economic status as one of the oldest religious communities in the Persian Gulf. Obviously, due to the little information we have in this regard, not all funds and areas can be examined and evaluated. Therefore, we have to pay attention only to the areas and issues about which data are available.

The present study uses a descriptive-analytical method based on the main sources. The aim of this paper is to investigate the socio-economic life of Jews in the Persian Gulf in the Safavids period.

Jews are one of the oldest religious-ethnic minorities in the Iranian society. Their geographical dispersion indicates that a specific point cannot be considered as their main habitat. This group scattered throughout Iran from the west to the central regions and from the central regions to the south, including the main area of their geographical distribution. One of the areas with a large Jewish presence was the shores of the Persian Gulf. This presence was accompanied by socio-economic activities there. What provided a good ground for such activities was the social context and structure of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, as one of the major trade routes, has been the center of international trade and commerce throughout history. This characteristic created a special social context and structure, the main feature of which was religious tolerance and mutual respect for different religions and denominations. This feature was so deep and lasting that it also affected the political structure of the region. Naturally, various religious groups, including the Jews, benefited from this socio-political structure. They operated freely in the various commercial and economic spheres without the slightest fear and were able to settle or travel in different parts of the region with no restriction.
With the arrival of the Portuguese, the socio-political climate of the region changed. They were staunch supporters of the Catholic Church and the Pope and did not give dignity to other religious groups. With their arrival, religious segregation in Hormuz, as the most important center of commercial and social, began exchange. They imposed more restrictions, especially on Jews, and even prevented new Jewish groups from entering the island. The defeat of the Portuguese and their expulsion from Hormuz strengthened the Safavids' presence on all the northern coasts and parts of the southern areas of the Persian Gulf. Despite the centennial presence of the Portuguese, the social fabric was so strong that indigenous and local communities could withstand external pressures and abuses and maintain and perpetuate their own archetype. Perhaps one of the main reasons for this failure is the alienation of the Portuguese themselves. This does not mean that their existence in this field has not been ineffective; rather, its effects have been few and far between.The Safavids at the beginning of their presence could not or did not want to change this structure. But later, under the influence of the court atmosphere, they pursued the same policy of restricting the Jews; a policy that was in stark contrast to the attitude of local bureaucrats and the social fabric and structure of the region. The growing weakness of the central government, which led to a reduction in court oversight of the rulers' performance, paved the way for further extortion. They put pressure on most groups and classes and found different ways to make a profit. Jews, meanwhile, were more likely to be abused.The change in the policy of the Safavid state not only affected the attitude of the bureaucrats towards Jews and other religious minorities but also affected the behavior of the indigenous community towards other religious groups in the long run. Despite the pessimistic view of the Safavid government and its supporters in the interior of Iran towards the Jews, we have no reports that the local communities on the shores of the Persian Gulf have taken a similar position. However, in the Qajar period, sources mention the negative view of the local community towards non-Islamic religious minorities although the actions of these minorities in changing this attitude should not be ignored. It can be assumed that the change in bureaucratic policies has also played an important role in this regard.

With the fall of Isfahan and Ottoman invasion of Iran, Maku region, the centrality of Maku Castle, became one of the first areas to be occupied by the Turks due to its location on the Ottoman-Iranian border. With Nader's rise to power and his attacks on the Ottoman occupiers in Iran, Maku region, like the rest of the south of the Aras River, was captured by him in 1143 AH. The question addressed in this study was, “What was the situation of Maku region in the Ottoman-Iranian conflicts during this period?” The present research attempted to investigate the situation of Maku region in the shadow of the Ottoman-Iranian conflicts (from the fall of Isfahan to Nader Shah’s death) through an analytical approach. The findings showed that the Ottoman-Iranian wars significantly influenced on maku's developments. The location of Maku region at the forefront of the Ottoman invasion of Iran caused a severe decline in its population during the Ottoman rule, while its economic situation got weakened. Maku region was in a weak position between the two powers during the wars due to its geographical location and proximity to the rare Ottoman-Iranian conflicts. Nader Shah consolidated his position at this border point by handing over control of the region to Bayat Tribe, which remained under Iranian rule despite brief interruptions.

With the rise of the Safavid government, Maku Castle, as one of the communication routes between Persian and Eastern Anatolia, became particularly significant to the Safavids, thus being captured by Ismail I of Persia. With the beginning of the Ottoman-Iranian wars in northwestern Iran, Maku region became the center of Maku Castle in the middle these battles. Its sovereignty was exchanged between the two sides. With the fall of Isfahan (1135 AH), the Ottoman invasions of Iran began. In the meantime, Maku Castle was one of the first areas to be captured and the long-standing Ottoman-Iranian conflicts over it were renewed. With Nader's rise to power and his conquest of Azerbaijan in 1143 AH, Maku Castle, like the rest of the region to the south of the Aras River, was conquered by the Iranians. He re-appointed Bayat Tribe, which ruled Maku Castle from the time of Shah Abbas I of Persia until the fall of Isfahan, to the Maku dynasty.The Ottoman-Persian wars significantly influenced on the developments in Maku region during this period. Due to its location at the crossroads of the Ottoman-Iranian border, Maku region was vulnerable to Ottoman attacks. After its initial occupation by Nader, due to Nader's constant conflicts with the Ottomans in northwestern Iran, the sovereignty of this region was changed between the two sides. Maku region was severely damaged due to its situation at the forefront of the Ottoman-Iranian conflict and in the Ottoman Empire's military campaigns. Consequently, at the presence of Ottoman-affiliated tribes, its population was significantly reduced. 

The present investigation aimed to study and analyze the developments in Maku region in the shadow of the Ottoman-Iranian conflicts, from the fall of Isfahan to Nader Shah’s death. This article sought to answer the question of how the Ottoman-Iranian conflicts in northwestern Iran affected the situation in Maku region.

Due to its location at the Iranian-Anatolian border crossing, Maku region was one of the first Iranian territories to be captured by pro-Ottoman tribal forces in 1135 AH. The Ottoman domination of Maku region lasted until 1143 AH when Nader Shah occupied it, as well as other Iranian areas south of the Aras River. During this period, with the policy of Ottoman militarism in the northwestern regions of Iran and the dominance of tribal thought supported by the Ottoman-affiliated Mahmudi Khans competing for control of Maku region, its political, economic, and social conditions declined.Nader took control of Maku region in 1143 AH and commissioned Bayat Tribe to protect it. With this action, he continued the Safavid tradition and strengthened his position in the corner of the northwestern territory of Iran near the Ottoman border. After these events, Nader shah waged several wars with the Ottomans in northwest Iran. These battles affected developments in Maku region. Its dominance was handed over between the parties in conflict. Eventually, however, the fort was established as one of the Iranian frontiers as in the Safavid period, while Nader could not gain the lands beyond it. The presence of Nader and the Ottomans in northwestern Iran and the expansionist efforts of the two sides to dominate the region caused Bayat Tribe, the ruler of Maku region, to remain loyal to Nader even though for a short period of time so as to maintain its hereditary rule in Maku region. Nonetheless, Ahmad Sultan as the minor assured allegiance of Bayat Tribe, which had a sensitive position near the Ottoman borders, incorporated them into its military structure.

Over the history, Shiites have always shown an interest in writing books on Imams, the family of the Holy Prophet and the lineage of Alawis. None of the outstanding Shiite scholars, however, have tried to compile an independent work on Hazrat Zeinab even in the Safavid era. This was not done until late Naseri era when Abbasgholi Sepehr (1342 AH), who was not as a scholar, but a court historian, compiled Nasekh al-Tavarikh on the Life of Zeinab Kobra (ناسخ التواریخ زندگانی زینب کبری (س)), which was known as Taraz al-Mazhab (طراز المذهب). The book was published as a one of the volumes of Nasekh al-Tavarikh on the life of Al Mohammad in 1314 AH. Abbasgholi Sepehr claimed that this book was the first one written about Hazrat Zeinab. Although some treatises and texts had been already written on Hazrat Zeinab, the work was the first one in Persian in this regard. Abbasgholikhan says that the aim of Nasekh al-Tavarikh on the Life of Zeinab Kobra, which was known as Taraz al-Mazhab, was producing a comprehensive history on the life of Hazrat Zeinab and he was proud of the innovation of the subject. Based on the title and the authors’ claim, as well as the historiographer and historian’s definition, one can call the work a historiographical text. It is worth mentioning that at the time of compiling the book, modern historiography was emerging and some changes were happening in traditional historiography. So far, no one has paid attention to the way Sepehr’s family, including Abbasgholi, as an outstanding representative of traditional historiography in the Qajar Era, dealt with such changes. As such, knowing the historiographical features of the work, especially the traditional histography could be important. Thus, the question of this research would be as follows: what was the reason Abbasgholi could not go beyond the classical historiography when writing on the life of Hazrat Zeinab though he tried to eliminate the drawbacks of traditional historiography? The study used the common descriptive-analytical method to provide the historiographical understanding and tried to discover the relationship between the text, writer, and sociopolitical and cultural context of the text in order to investigate how and why the text had been produced. The results show that in Taraz al-Mazhab, Abbasgholi Sepehr endeavored to eliminate the drawbacks of traditional historiography that his contemporaries had brought about, but he was successful only in improving some elements of historiography where there were no conflicts with his attitude. The success included mentioning all the references, writing simply, and avoiding redundancy and literary devices, poems, and long-running use of words. However, he was not successful in short writing. Facing the contrast between classical and modern historiography, the writer decided to mention narratives like Tabari. Most probably, his strong motivation for the preference was that he thought using that method was innovative and a superior feature of his book. This manner could make him prominent in the competition between the writers of religious and historical works of the time, especially in the eyes of the king and court. Abbasgholi’s main challenge was eliminating the drawback of the historians’ silence when facing contradictory news and deemed this as one of the features of classical historiography. He doubted assuming the allowance of telling his personal ideas and the historian’s presence in the text (the feature of modern historiography) and emphasized the necessity of staying silent because of his low status in divine knowledge and God-given knowledge of the infallibles (PBUH). The traditional look at history and interpreting the world from the perspective of religion formed his attitude towards history. Keeping far from the common traditional way of the historiography of the time, Abbasgholi Sepehr did not believe in the presence of historians when facing narratives and, mentioning repeatedly the inability of human beings in reaching the exact knowledge, avoided making decisive statements. Therefore, he preferred adhering to his second concern that was determining the real identity of Zeinab (PBUH) and Umm Kulthum from amongst the different existing narrations on the life of Hazrat Zeinab. It seemed that he did not pay attention to the drawback of his work that was leaving the readers with various possibilities. The most important achievement of his book was that it met the needs of his religious and traditional audience by stating all the news about Hazrat Zeinab and her status in the world. To him, the benefits of adhering to the methods of classical historiography in this text in his competition with the works of his contemporary translators and historians of religion were more than eliminating the drawbacks of this historiography style. The study showed that Abbasgholi Sepehr was successful in eliminating the shortcomings of the traditional method, but was not in choosing between the contradictory news and a consistent narration of the life of Hazrat Zeinab. The reasons were as follows: the classical method of historiography was institutionalized in him. He believed in the insignificant issue of the historians’ presence in restructuring the past. On the other hand, the benefits of adherence to traditional historiography brought about more acceptability of his book. This issue was more significant than solving the shortcomings of this method of historiography.