Journal of Language Horizons
Volume:6 Issue: 1, Winter and Spring 2022

Over recent decades, second language acquisition (SLA) researchers have considered attention an important cognitive process mediating second language (L2) learning. The concept of noticing as conscious attention to form has become especially important in the field. The present study explored whether two pedagogical interventions, namely textual input enhancement (TIE) and learners´ output production (LOP), in isolation and in combination, promoted learners’ noticing and learning of English relative clauses (RC). The study was conducted with a sample of 113 freshmen majoring in English language and literature. The participants were assigned to three experimental groups and the control group based on the treatments they received, +TIE+LOP, +TIE-LOP, -TIE+LOP, and -TIE-LOP. Before treatment, all the participants took a test of English RCs as the pretest. Then, the participants were required to read the reading texts including instances of RCs and take note. While the participants in the +TIE groups read the enhanced input, the participants in the -TIE groups received the unenhanced input. Also, the participants in the +LOP groups were required to carry out output tasks, but the participants in the -LOP groups answered comprehension questions. Consequently, the participants took part in think-aloud processes. Finally, the test of RCs was administered again as the posttest. The findings revealed that LOP positively affected the participants’ noticing and learning of RCs. However, TIE was only effective in promoting the participants’ noticing, but not learning, of RCs.

One subfield of assessment of language proficiency is predicting language proficiency level.This research aims at proposing a computational linguistic model to predict language proficiency level and to explore the general properties of the levels. To this end, we collect the data from Persian learners' textbooks and extract statistical and linguistic features from this text corpus to train 3 classifiers as learners. The performance of the model varies based on the learning algorithm and the feature set(s) used for training the model. For evaluating the models, four standard metrics, namely accuracy, precision, recall, and F-measure are used. Based on the results, the model created by the Random Forest classifier performed the best when statistical features extracted from raw text is used. The Support Vector Machine classifier performed the best by using linguistic features extracted from the corpus annotated automatically. This determines that enriching the model and providing various kinds of information do not guarantee that a classifier (learner) performs the best.To discover the latent teaching methodology of the textbooks, we studied the general performance of the classifiers with respect to the language level and the linguistic knowledge used for creating the model. Based on the obtained results, the amount of extracted features plays an important role during to training a classifier. Furthermore, the average best performance of the classifiers is extending the linguistic knowledge from syntactic patterns at level A to all linguistic information at levels B and C.

The present study set out to inspect how organizational and pragmatic knowledge can be functions of the assessment techniques practices implemented in the classroom. To this aim, the effects of teacher, peer, and self-assessment techniques that focused on providing feedback on pragmatic and organizational knowledge were compared. A total number of 98 female Iranian learners studying at pre-intermediate level in a language institute participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to one of the three groups of self-assessment (SA) (N = 32), peer-assessment (PA) (N = 33), and teacher-assessment (TA) (N = 33). Pragmatic competence was gauged using Discourse Role Play Talks (DRPTs) and organizational knowledge was assessed by a scale covering the grammatical and textual knowledge of the participants. The results of the analysis of one-way ANOVA test indicated that self-assessment followed by peer assessment had an advantage over the teacher assessment technique in promoting both pragmatic and organizational competence. In general, the obtained results yielded support for the employment of alternative methods of assessment as pedagogical tools to foster language competence. Implications for EFL pedagogy are discussed.

The study was an attempt to discover any possible correlation between EFL teachers' burnout and their emotional and cultural intelligence. Furthermore, it aimed at finding out which variable: Emotional or cultural intelligence could be a better predictor of teacher burnout. The study also delved into the possible relationship of gender and Iraqi EFL teachers' burnout and investigated which gender was more affected by burnout. Finally, male and female Iraqi teachers were compared and contrasted with regard to emotional intelligence and cultural intelligence. To this end, three questionnaires: (1) Maslach Burnout Inventory–Educators' Survey (MBI-ES), (2) the Cultural Intelligence Scale (CQS) developed by Van Dyne et al. (2008), (3) Wang and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS) were submitted to more than 200 teachers either in person or via email or an already-generated Google Doc link of the three questionnaires. Some teachers remained reluctant to share their responses and refused to fill out the questionnaires and 164 Iraqi EFL teachers completed all the three questionnaires. The results demonstrated that Iraqi EFL teachers' burnout and their emotional and cultural intelligence correlated significantly but negatively. Both emotional and cultural intelligence could significantly and almost similarly predict teacher burnout. Moreover, teacher burnout and gender were significantly correlated and Iraqi EFL female teachers were more susceptible and vulnerable to teacher burnout. The study implies that emotionally and culturally-aware teachers might be able to take precautionary measures to either mitigate or curb teacher burnout.

The shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered approaches in second language acquisition and from product to process approach in writing pedagogy over the last few decades has stimulated quite a number of researchers to focus on learners' voices in collaboration passing through multiple drafts and revisions. This study based on the concept of scaffolding learning in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and process writing approach to second language writing investigated Iranian EFL learners' negotiation types in small groups of different scaffolding patterns; symmetrical and asymmetrical. To this end, 15 students at High and Low Intermediate Proficiency levels were assigned into three groups in different scaffolding patterns; one asymmetrical group with two High Intermediate - three Low Intermediate learners (H-L), two symmetrical groups with five High Intermediate learners (H-H), another with five Low Intermediate learners (L-L). Small group interactions were observed and recorded. Transcriptions were analyzed to identify negotiation types in terms of language functions among different groups of scaffolding patterns. According to Chi-square test results, negotiation types were significantly related to the scaffolding pattern as the asymmetrical (H-L) group was superior in the number of language functions used over the symmetrical (L-L, H-H) groups. Nevertheless, members in all groups enjoyed high equality and mutuality in interaction with each other. The findings suggest teachers raise learners' awareness of the diverse strengths and abilities that different scaffolding patterns give them; for instance, a sense of responsibility for their group members’ engagement.

Although extensive research has been conducted on successful technology integration, encompassing the readily available technology, providing a techno-based environment, and applying high-level technology in the classroom still seem to be very much in the minority. Besides, technology integration illustrates additional barriers, including teachers’ and students’ technology-based knowledge and schools’ financial problems. In contrast to earlier findings in EFL contexts, however, little evidence seems to be available about Iranian teachers' classroom uses of the technology. Therefore, this paper aims to present the Iranian teacher's conceptual pedagogical attitude to technology integration and illuminate how technology integration impacts teachers' classroom practice. To this end, 10 Iranian EFL teachers in private and public schools in Golestan Province were interviewed. The qualitative data of the interviews were recorded in English and transcribed; they were then coded and analyzed by employing thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) via NVivo 12 computer software to show the dimensions and components of the conceptual model of technology integration. One of the themes extracted from the thematic analysis of the Iranian teachers’ perceptions was the lack of technological knowledge. That is, a limited understanding of teachers about using technology in their teaching was viewed as a significant problem. Another theme referred to the limited use of technology which makes teachers use computers as a supplementary tool. In addition, it was found that the educational context does not create need-based technology conditions for them, leading to the teachers' ineffective use of technology.

This study explores the extent to which adult Second Language Learners (L2ers) of English are sensitive to Subject-Verb (S-V) agreement errors with thematic verbs and copulas. A group of intermediate-to-advanced Persian-English L2ers and a group of native English speakers (NSs) participated in an online Speeded Acceptability Judgment task. The results are as follows. Whereas NSs are sensitive to number agreement errors in both verb types, L2ers are not. For L2ers, the results reveal the following systematic errors. For agreement errors in thematic verbs, there is an omission-commission asymmetry; whereas L2ers are not sensitive to omission errors they are sensitive to commission errors in finite forms. For copulas, there is a singular-plural asymmetry indicating higher error rates in *plural subject NP + is configurations than in *singular subject NP+ are ones. Yet, proficiency seems to be a strong predictor of L2ers’ sensitivity to agreement errors. The results support the Morphological Underspecification Hypothesis (McCarthy, 2007; 2008; 2012).

The current study investigates the effect of flipped instruction on writing self-efficacy and writing performance of Medical students at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. Fifty students participated in this experimental study. They were assigned as the treatment group consisted of 25 students and the control group 25 students. The control group (the non-flipped classroom) was taught using traditional writing instruction, whereas the experimental group (the flipped classroom) was taught in a flipped learning mode. The questionnaire used in this study was adapted from Donald O. Prickel’s research (1994) and was scored based on the Likert scale for the writing self-efficacy. The data were gathered in a Pretest-Treatment-Posttest design. The results revealed that flipped instruction had a more positive effect on improvement of both writing self-efficacy and writing performance of the learners compared to those instructed traditionally. The results of this study widen the perspective of EFL teachers in that they can recognize novel methods of instruction.

The flipped classroom is a teaching approach that can afford additional face-to-face communication with students in the classroom. Although there are some studies that have already investigated the flipped classroom in general, few studies have investigated critical thinking and performance in learning grammar, in particular. The design of the study was a quasi-experimental research. This research was performed within an English class for six weeks in 2020. Three hundred and sixty English learners were chosen through multistage cluster sampling from two different institutions within the range of 13-19 who were studying at intermediate and upper-intermediate levels. Among fifty grammar videos, eight grammar contents based on content validity index (CVI) and content validity ratio(CVR) were selected. Questionnaires were EPT (English performance tests) and CT (critical thinking). The experimental group was educated with the flipped classroom model whereas the courses were performed based on the present syllabus in the control group. It was realized that there was no substantial discrepancy between the pre-test and post-test the scores of the control group while there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental group. Teachers can be proposed to manipulate the flipped classroom model to boost learners’ critical thinking and performance.

Framed in Vygotskian sociocultural theory, this study aims to investigate the effect of computerized group dynamic assessment (GDA) through software on Iranian male and female learners’ listening comprehension ability. Data were collected through the administration of listening comprehension pretest and post-tests among 140 participants divided into male and female learners into the experimental and control groups. There were 35 male and 35 female learners in each group of the study. Participants in the experimental groups were exposed to GDA in order to interactively work on the selected tasks of listening comprehension, and the teacher provided the necessary support as well. Quantitative analysis of the pre- and post-tests of listening comprehension among male and female groups was conducted through two-way analysis of variance and covariance. Results revealed that both male and female learners in the experimental groups significantly outperformed the learners’ listening comprehension in the control groups. However, there were not any significant differences between the gender groups’ listening comprehension ability in the experimental groups. Findings contributed to the effective employment of GDA through software in order to improve the learners’ listening comprehension ability, denoting that teachers are recommended to be aware of technological devices in paving an interactive way for learners to develop their language skills and sub-skills.

While previous academic achievement studies have examined a wide range of cognitive variables, certain non-cognitive variables such as teacher-student interaction and academic self-concept related to academic achievement have remained under-researched, which has resulted in void in the related literature. To this end, a correlational survey research design was used to examine the academic self-concept, and teacher-student interaction factors that had been identified as having contributive roles in EFL learners’ academic achievement. The sample of the study consisted of 218 Iranian EFL university students, aged between 18 and 45. Structural equation modeling hypothesis-testing procedures indicated that the hypothesized model fits the data (χ2=0.37, GFI=0.99, CFI=0.99, RMSEA=0.01). It was revealed that teacher-student interaction directly and significantly influences EFL learners' academic accomplishment (r = 0.35, p = 0.45). Besides, academic self-concept was known to be a significant factor in improving students' achievement (r = 0.24, p = 0.32). The obtained results also indicated that the impact of teacher-student interaction on EFL learners' academic achievement is mediated by the effects of academic self-concept. The causal contribution of psychological factors, consisting of teacher-student interaction and academic self-concept to EFL learners’ academic achievement was validated. The findings of this exploratory research have some implications for classroom practice.

The present study investigated the role of semantic priming in the processing of ambiguous sentences containing Relative Clauses (RCs) preceded by a complex Noun Phrase (NP) by Persian native speakers. To this end, in a self-paced reading task using E-prime software, 63 Persian native speakers read sentences containing ambiguous RCs in their L1 Persian. The type of semantic relationship in this study was between the RC and one of the NPs within the complex NP to find out whether priming one of the NPs through this semantic manipulation would affect Persian native speakers’ attachment preferences. The results of the off-line post interpretive (RC attachment preferences) and on-line data (reading times) revealed that semantic priming affects participants’ attachment preferences which suggest that their parsing preferences are not guided purely by syntactic information. The findings are in line with constraint-based models of sentence parsing, which assume that during parsing, multiple sources of information interact and each of them constrains the interpretation in a particular way. The results also support the predictions of the Spreading Activation Model and Lexical Priming Theory.