فهرست مطالب

ذهن - سال بیست و سوم شماره 1 (پیاپی 89، بهار 1401)

فصلنامه ذهن
سال بیست و سوم شماره 1 (پیاپی 89، بهار 1401)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1401/02/19
  • تعداد عناوین: 9
|
  • علی اکبر رشاد، مهدی عباس زاده* صفحات 5-35

    امروزه پراکنده کاری و عدم تمحض پژوهشگران بر قلمرو موضوعی محدد و محدود در پژوهش های علوم انسانی، از جمله کاستی ها و کژی های بنیادین این حوزه معرفتی است. بر این اساس مسئله مقاله حاضر عبارت از تعریف و تبیین راهبرد تخصصی سازی پژوهش (تخصص گرایی تمحض محور) در عرصه علوم انسانی و فرایند اجرای آن است. در این مقاله ابتدا واکاوی پیشینه پژوهش حاضر در ایران و جهان با مراجعه به ادبیات علمی مربوط صورت بسته و بیان دستاوردهای مشخص آن، مرحله بعدی را تشکیل داده است. همچنین ضمن تعریف مفاهیم مرتبط با پژوهش حاضر و بیان چهارچوب نظری آن از جهت غایت و روش، توضیح داده شده است که چرا راهبرد تمحض گرایی در پژوهش های علوم انسانی به گونه ای که مقاله حاضر به تبیین آن پرداخته، دارای اهمیت و ضرورت است. در ادامه به بررسی و تحلیل مفاد مقاله از جهات مختلف پرداخته، نهایتا الگویی بومی از برنامه تمحض محوری و تخصص گرایی پژوهش به دست داده شده است. روش پژوهش حاضر از جهت ماهوی، نظری- تجربی و از جهت گردآوری داده ها، کتابخانه ای است. این تحقیق را می توان فشرده نظریه و نظام پژوهشی ای قلمداد کرد که مبتنی بر انگاره ای خاص به نام «تخصص گرایی تمحض محور» در فلسفه پژوهش است.

    کلیدواژگان: فلسفه پژوهش، پژوهش علوم انسانی، تخصص گرایی تمحض محور، جامع نگری علمی
  • رمضان علی تبار فیروزجایی صفحات 35-66

    از مسایل مهم در حوزه علم شناسی، ارزش باری علوم، به ویژه علوم انسانی است. با پذیرش این اصل، مسئله ریالیسم ارزش شناختی در علوم انسانی مطرح می شود. در این زمینه، رویکردهای مختلفی در غرب و جهان اسلام وجود دارد. برخی مکاتب فلسفی، نظیر پوزیتیویست ها بر پایه اصل بی معنایی ارزش ها و بی طرفی علم، از اساس منکر ارزش باری علم شده و آن را ناقض عینیت و کاشفیت علم می دانند. در مقابل، طرفداران پارادایم تفسیری و انتقادی، محدودنمودن ارزش ها را در علم، غیرممکن می دانند و معتقدند، علوم، مملو از ارزش های مختلف است. آنان به جهت اینکه نتوانستند از ریالیسم معرفت شناختی و ارزش شناختی دفاع کنند؛ با  نسبیت گرایی معرفت شناختی مواجه شدند؛ اما بر اساس اندیشه اسلامی، ضمن پذیرش اصل ارزش باری علم و تبیین آن، می توان از واقع نمایی و عینیت، به ویژه ریالیسم ارزش شناختی در علوم انسانی، دفاع نمود. مقاله حاضر می کوشد با روش تحلیل عقلی، بر اساس منظومه فکری اسلام، به ریالیسم ارزش شناختی در علوم انسانی اسلامی بپردازد. از یافته های مقاله حاضر، واقع نمایی ارزش شناختی علوم انسانی و به تبع آن، برخی نتایج معرفت شناختی و روش شناختی نظیر ثبات و جاودانگی ارزش های پایه، نقش تسهیل گری ارزش ها در فرایند علم و تعیین منابع معرفتی است.

    کلیدواژگان: علوم انسانی، ارزش، ارزش شناسی، واقع نمایی، رئالیسم ارزش شناختی
  • رحیم نارویی نصرتی * صفحات 67-93

    هدف این پژوهش بررسی «احساس و ادراک در روان‎شناسی و مقایسه آن با دیدگاه ملاصدرا» است. بدین مظور ابتدا با مراجعه به منابع روان شناختی معتبر مانند آثار بروس گلداشتاین، جیمز کالات، اتکینسون و هیلگارد آخرین دیدگاه ها درباره احساس و ادراک استخراج گردید؛ سپس به کتاب های دست اول ملاصدرا نظیر اسفار، مفاتیح الغیب و شواهد الربوبیه به‎ویژه مباحث مربوط به قوای حسی و نحوه ادراک مراجعه گردید و دیدگاه ایشان در این زمینه گردآوری شد. یافته ها به روش توصیفی- تحلیلی با همدیگر مقایسه گردید و نتایج ذیل به دست آمد: 1- از نگاه عمده روان شناسان، ماهیت احساس و ادراک امری مادی و از جنس موادی مغزی نخاعی و نهایتا فعالیت آن است. 2- ادراک طی هفت مرحله رخ می دهد که از مواجهه انسان با محرک بیرونی آغاز شده، به تجربه هشیار در ارتباط با محرک خارجی و اتخاذ رفتار مناسب در ارتباط با آن پایان می یابد. 3- گستره ادراک به مدرکات حسی محدود می گردد و برای انسان ادراکی از سنخ دیگر رخ نمی دهد یا دست کم با تردید مواجه است. 4-از نظر ملاصدرا احساس و ادراک صرفا برای نفس اتفاق می افتد که جوهری مجرد است و امر ادراک‏شده یا صورت ذهنی امری مجرد و فعل و تولید نفس است که نفس آن را هماهنگ با تغییر بدنی می سازد. 5- ادراک حسی طی پنج مرحله رخ می‏دهد که از مواجهه با شیء خارجی آغاز می‏شود و به ساخت صورت مجرد هماهنگ با آن توسط نفس و تفسیر و تحلیل آن خاتمه می یابد. 6- ادراک در انسان به ادراک حسی محدود نیست و علاوه بر آن از ادراک شهودی، نقلی، وحیانی و عقلی نیز برخودار است؛ بلکه ادراک های شهودی و عقلی پایه دیگر ادراکات حتی ادراک های حسی هستند.

    کلیدواژگان: احساس، ادراک، ماهیت ادراک، مراحل ادراک، گستره ادراک
  • مهدی خلیلی*، ابوالفضل کیاشمشکی صفحات 95-125

    درباره چیستی مشاهده ناپذیرها مناقشه ای پردامنه بین واقع گرایان و ناواقع گرایان علمی در گرفته است. این مقاله گفت‏وگویی را میان فلسفه علم و فلسفه اسلامی می گشاید و بر اساس دیدگاه هایی فلسفی از علامه طباطبایی (1281-1360) درباره مشاهده ناپذیرها نظریه پردازی می کند. این دیدگاه ها شامل «اصالت وجود»، «علم حصولی و خطاپذیری آن» و «اعتباریات»اند. مقاله حاضر مفاهیم توصیف گر مشاهده ناپذیرها را تحلیل و چنین استدلال می کند که آنها نه مفاهیم ماهوی اند، نه مفاهیم منطقی/ فلسفی و نه از اعتباریات عملی اند؛ با این حال مشاهده ناپذیرها از جنبه ای به ماهیت و از جنبه ای دیگر به اعتباریات عملی شباهت دارند؛ همچنین استدلال می شود هویت مشاهده ناپذیر وجودی دارد و توصیف های نظری درباره آن می توانند واقع نما باشند. در عین حال اعتبارهایی در ساختن مدل های نظری درباره مشاهده ناپذیرها استخدام می شوند و به این دلیل معرفت علمی خطاپذیرست. درمجموع نظریه ای که در این مقاله توسعه می یابد از وجهی واقع گرایانه است و از وجهی بر عناصر اعتباری در ساخت علم تاکید دارد.

    کلیدواژگان: مشاهده ناپذیرها، واقع گرایی علمی، علامه طباطبایی، اصالت وجود، خطاپذیری، اعتباریات
  • روزبه زارع صفحات 127-157

    علم جدید نقش منحصر بفرد و غیر قابل انکاری در شکل گیری تمدن جدید دارد. موفقیت این حوزه معرفتی بشر در حل مسایل معرفتی دامنه موضوعات خود و دستاوردهای عملی آن در بهبود وضع زندگی بشر، به تدریج، منجر به شکل گیری آموزه ای گردید که به دنبال تعمیم مرزهای علم به سایر حوزه های معرفت یا زیست انسانی است. اصطلاحا به این آموزه «علم گرایی» می گویند. هدف این مقاله به دست دادن تصویری روشن از مدعای علم گرایی، انواع مختلف آن و نسبت آن با سایر مفاهیم مرتبط می باشد. بدین منظور، در ابتدا تاریخچه تکوین این ایده مرور شده و پس از آن انواع مختلف آن بیان شده است؛ بحث از انواع علم گرایی با تعیین وجه جامع آن پایان یافته است. در گام بعدی، مفاهیم اصلی مرتبط با این آموزه فهرست شده و وجه مشترک میان سه مفهوم اصلی مرتبط با علم گرایی بیان شده است و نهایتا مقاله با نسبت سنجی دو آموزه علم گرایی و طبیعی گرایی به پایان رسیده است.

    کلیدواژگان: طبیعی گرایی، فیزیکی گرایی، مادی گرایی، تقلیل گرایی، مکانیکی گرایی
  • سید محمدحسین میردامادی*، محمد بیدهندی صفحات 159-189

    تاویل‏های ملاصدرا در مقالات و برخی کتاب‎ها ‎مورد نقد قرار گرفته و معمولا پذیرفته نشده است. در این مقاله شانزده مورد از نقدها پاسخ داده شده‎اند و قواعدی که در پاسخ به نقدها آورده شده تبیین شده‎اند. بر همین معیار اکثر قریب به اتفاق نقدهای وارد بر تاویل‏های صدرا قابل پاسخ است که ما به مقتضای حجم مقاله به این موارد پرداخته ایم.قواعد مورد بررسی در اینجا عبارت‎اند از قاعده روح معنی، قاعده نگاه استقلالی به آیات، قاعده تاویل با تغییر زمینه متن، قاعده لزوم ضابطه مندی، ، قاعده اتحاد وجودی وقاعده اعتبارات مختلف عالم عقل؛ اما هدف اصلی مقاله پاسخ به نقدها بوده و چون این پاسخ نیازمند تبیین قواعد بوده است نخست به تبیین قواعد استنباطی پرداخته ایم. روش ما تحلیل بر اساس محتوا بوده و یافته تحقیق پاسخ پذیر بودن نقدهای موجود بر اساس منطق تاویل است.

    کلیدواژگان: منطق تاویل، نقد تاویل، قواعد تاویل، صدرالمتالهین
  • غلامعلی مقدم * صفحات 191-215

    تبیین نحوه ادراک از مهم‏ترین مباحث معرفت‎شناسی در مکاتب فلسفی است. مثل افلاطون، تجرید ارسطو، مواجهه ابن‏سینا، انشا و مشاهده ملاصدرا، عنوان کلی سبزواری و... نمونه‏هایی از تلاش برای تبیین نحوه ادراک در نفس انسانی بوده‏اند. در دوره اخیر علامه طباطبایی دیدگاهی متفاوت در ادراک حسی ارایه کرد. به نظر علامه حصول ادراک حسی، مسبوق به شهود حقایق مثالی به علم حضوری است. واقعیت مساوق وجود است و ماهیت اعتباری اضطراری است که از جهت ارتباط نفس با مقدمات طبیعی حاصل شده است. عرفا نیز با تاکید بر وجود واحد مطلق، تعینات و ماهیات را حاصل نسبت و اعتبار معرفی کرده‏اند. در این مقاله به روش تحلیلی، دیدگاه علامه را تقریر کرده و نزدیکی ایشان به مبانی عرفانی در هستی‏شناسی و معرفت‏شناسی را نشان داده‏ایم. علامه در این نگاه علم حصولی را نه مرتبط با ماهیت خارجی یا حدود وجود مادی که در مواجهه حضوری با وجود، تبیین نموده و از این رهگذر به نگاه عرفان نظری نزدیک شده است.

    کلیدواژگان: علامه طباطبایی، ادراک حسی، عالم مثال، شهود مثالی
  • راضی میاح، ساسان شرفی*، منصوره شکرآمیز صفحات 217-245

    سوره یوسف از جمله سوره‏های جذاب و آموزنده قرآنی است که می‏توان آن را از زوایای مختلف علمی، ادبی، اجتماعی و زبان شناختی بررسی نمود؛ از این رو هدف پژوهشگر در این جستار معرفی ساختار «تعبیر صحنه» و ابعاد مختلف آن که شامل زاویه دید، شرح صحنه، ضبط صحنه و کانون توجه و تجزیه و تحلیل داستان حکمت آمیز این این سوره مبارک بر اساس تیوری زبان‎شناسی شناختی رونالد لنگاکر (2008) می‎باشد. در این تحقیق به تجزیه و تحلیل این داستان جذاب قرآنی از بعد «شرح صحنه» در این نظریه خواهیم پرداخت. از جمله حوزه ‏هایی که علم زبان‎شناسی شناختی می‏تواند ما را به درکی عمیق و کاوش‏های دقیق تر سوق دهد، حوزه هایی مانند فرهنگ، آداب و رسوم، دین و پژوهش و تفحص در کتاب‏های آسمانی می‎باشند. روش پژوهش حاضر توصیفی_ تحلیلی بوده و منابع آن مطالعات کتابخانه ‎ای می‎باشند.

    کلیدواژگان: تعبیر صحنه، شرح صحنه، زبان‎شناسی شناختی
  • محسن خیاط کاشانی صفحات 247-264

    دیدگاه طبیعت گرایانه در توضیح کامل عالم دچار مشکلاتی است. از جمله این مشکلات یافتن توضیح برای وجود آگاهی است که آن را در ارایه یک تصویر جامع از عالم ناکام گذاشته است. توماس نیگل معتقد است داشتن یک تصویر کامل از جهان، علاوه بر دیدگاه بیرونی که زنجیره علت های مادی را در تاریخ نشان می دهد، نیاز به دیدگاهی درونی است که توضیح مسایلی مانند شکل گیری آگاهی و حیات در ارگانیسم ها را نشان دهد. به این ترتیب نیگل معتقد است به منظور دست یابی به توضیح کامل می‎توان به وجود نوعی غایت انگاری ارسطویی در قوانین حاکم بر ماده قایل بود. در این مقاله ضمن توضیح غایت انگاری ارسطو و نظرات نیگل نشان داده می شود که دیدگاه ارسطو نیگل را به هدفش نمی رساند. در پایان نتیجه گیری می شود که با برگرفتن غایت انگاری ابن ‏سیناست که می توان به هدف نیگل نزدیک تر شد و از مشکلات توضیحی پدیده آگاهی کاست.

    کلیدواژگان: غایت انگاری، آگاهی، نیگل، ابن ‎سینا، ارسطو، طبیعت گرایی
|
  • Ali Akbar Rashad, Mahdi Abbaszadeh* Pages 5-35
    Introduction

    Nowadays, the scattering and non-spaciality of researchers in the field of limited and certain subject matter in the humanities researchs is one of the fundamental shortcomings and distortions of this field of knowledge. This problem causes the loss and low return of human and material capital and also causes the loss of opportunity. Accordingly, the issue of the present article is to define and explain the strategy of specialism and subspacialism of research in the field of humanities and its implementation process. This article can be considered as a compact theory and research system that is based on a special idea called "The Subspacial-oriented Specialism" in the philosophy of research.

    Method of Study

    The method of the present research in terms of quiddity is theoretical-experimental and in terms of data collection is library. Also, important scientific records and documents (including theoretical foundations and their results) and some actions taken and necessary experiences (including expertism, design and implementation) of various research programs, as needed, have been referred to and used.

    Findings

    The strategy of specialism of research in humanities is a solution to solve the problem of dispersal and non-speciality of researchs in the field of humanities in our country. In this article, first, the analysis of the background of the present research in Iran and the world by referring to the relevant scientific literature, and then expression of its specific achievements, have been carried out. Also, while defining the concepts related to the present research and expressing its theoretical framework in terms of purpose and method, it is explained why the strategy of subspacial-oriented specialism in humanities researchs, as explained in the present article, is important and necessary. In the following, the contents of the article have been studied and analyzed from different angles.

    Conclusion

    In addition to the theoretical results of the present article, the practical result of the article is to propose a native model of the program of subspacial-oriented specialism in research with necessary actions, as follows: 1. Development of the method of specialism of research in the humanities as a system of knowledge production in this field; 2. Justifying and learning of the above method for research policy makers in research and educational institutions and research influencers; 3. Forming subspacialist research teams and appointing a mentor for nurturing researchers to conduct the pilot; 4. Configuration (formulation) of the subspacialist fields in each of the humanities disciplines; 5. Investing a central researcher for the subspacialist fields; and 6. Creating a specialized network by defining research team programs to motivate and direct the research

    Keywords: Philosophy of Research, Research in Humanities, Specialism, Subspacialism, Scientific Holism
  • Ramezan Alitabar Firouzjaei* Pages 35-66
    Introduction

    One of the important issues in the field of scientology is the value of sciences, especially humanities. By accepting this principle, the value realism in the humanities is raised. In this regard, there are different approaches in the West and the Islamic world. Some philosophical schools, such as positivists, based on the principle of meaninglessness of values and the neutrality of science, deny the having value of science and consider it as violating the objectivity and discovery of science. The interpretive and critical paradigms, on the other hand, find it impossible to limit values in science and believe that science is full of different values. Because they could not defend epistemological and axiological realism; Faced with epistemological relativism. But according to Islamic thought, while accepting the principle of the having value of science and explaining it, one can defend realism and objectivity, especially value realism in the humanities.

    Method of Study

    This article tries to deal with axiological realism in Islamic humanities through the method of rational analysis, based on the Islamic intellectual system. The focus of this article is on value realism. First, the meaning of value of science is explained, and then, while pointing to axiology in the three dominant paradigms, axiological realism in the humanities will be explained based on the intellectual framework of Islam, especially Transcendent Philosophy.

    Findings

    1- According to the Islamic intellectual system, science is valuable and valuable by observing the principles and foundations of epistemology and value, not only does not harm the objectivity of science; But in line with epistemological values, they also have an identifying and guiding role; 2- In addition to value, the humanities have descriptive and value propositions, and the realism of descriptive propositions means that they can be adapted to reality and the matter ne can bridge (the relationship between "is" and "musts"); Therefore, the realism of value propositions depends on the realism of descriptive theorems; 4- What is meant by fact in non-descriptive cases is valuenormative fact. Value realism in the humanities; That is, value concepts and theorems, although we do not have external elements; But they do not lack the essence and reality, and with double mental activity, it is possible to judge the connection of these concepts with their own proportional reality. The reality and the essence of the matter are value propositions, interests and interests; 5. Value realism is based on ontological and epistemological realism; 6- The results of value realism in Islam are: stability and immortality of basic values in the humanities, providing a criterion of desirable values for a positive effect and facilitation in the process of science and determining the sources of knowledge in the humanities, especially in the field of values.

    Conclusion

    the axiological realism of the humanities and, consequently, some epistemological and methodological results such as the stability and Immortality of basic values, the facilitating role of values in the process of science and the determination of epistemological sources.

    Keywords: Sensation, Perception, the Nature of Perception, theSteps of Perception, Perception Scope, Mulla Sadra
  • Rahim Narooei Nosrati* Pages 67-93
    Introduction

    We often articulate such sentences as, sky is blue, fire is very hot, ice is cold and so on. If someone asks how we really obtain these cognitive experiences as conscious matters, the answer appears to be simple even trivial. Because we see the sky, sense the temperature or the flame and ice, and tase the honey. In other words, such experiences obtained through senses. But the problem is not as simple as appears at first glance. That is ,in fact, the problem popularized under the title of perception. Then the question is, How perception psychologically occurs for us as human beings? What is Islamic views referring to the phenomenon? Aiming to examine the subject, we studied “sensation and perception in psychology in comparison to viewpoints of Mulla Sadra: nature, processes and extension. To do so, at first, we have referred to recent psychological sources on sensation and perception as Goldstein E (2017), Kalat (2017) and Atkinson & Hilgard (2009) and gathered up the last psychological views about the subject matter. Then the main books of Mullasadra such as Asfar, Mafatiholgheib and Shavahedorobobeia were searched and the author’s viewpoints on sensation and perception collected.

    Method of Study

    Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text). Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts. Using content analytical method, the following collusions obtained.

    Findings

    1- Majority of psychologists believe that perception even its last steps, i.e. conscious cognitive experience is the same cerebral activities; 2- Perception occurs in seven steps ranging from facing an external stimulus to transformation of it into conscious experience, and finally doing appropriate behavior; 3- Perception is limited to sensory perception and there are no other types of perception for human beings; 4- In the contrast, according to Mullasadra, perception is restricted to the soul which is nonmaterial essence and physical stuffs including brain and its activities are not capable to produce conscious experience. Perception is creation of a mental form by the soul in accordance to the changes happened in the brain. The created form is the fact that perceived by soul, not a part of the body as brain; 5- Sensory perception takes place in five steps from facing external stimulus to creating a mental form by soul and its interpretation and analysis; 6- Perception in human beings is not limited to sensory ones, furthermore there are intuitive , narrative and rational perceptions. Not only is there rational perception, but also it is the basis for development of other types of perceptions.

    Conclusion

    Perception happens into two general stages: first is what occurs in the cerebral system as physical basis for the process, including entrance of light into the eyes, formation of reticular picture, electrochemical transformations and transmitting neural massages to the perception foci in the brain. According to psychologists in particular biopsychologists such as James Kalat and others, these processes equal the very perception and conscious experience. Based on Islamic sources especially viewpoints of Mulla Sadra, however, these are the only prerequisites for sensation and perception. Perception happens as second general stage, not in the brain but for another, fundamental component of the organism, which is nonmartial, the soul. Soul is the essence which conceives the changes in its body and transforms them into a special state that we call it perception. In fact, it is a miraculous matter that we couldn’t explore its mystery up to now.

    Keywords: Sensation, Perception, the Nature of Perception, theSteps of Perception, Perception Scope, Mulla Sadra
  • Mahdi Khalili*, Abolfazl Kiashemshaki Pages 95-125
    Introduction

    A wide-ranging debate about the nature of unobservables, such as electrons and genes, has been occurred between scientific realists and antirealists. The main questions, at the ontological, epistemological, and semantic levels of discussion, are respectively as follows: Do unobservables exist? Is our knowledge of unobservables truthful? How are unobservables referred to? This paper theorizes about unobservables on the basis of the philosophical views of Muhammad Husayn Tabātabāī (1903–1981 AD), known with the honorific title Allāma Tabātabāī, an Iranian philosopher and Islamic thinker. These views include the ontological primacy of existence over quiddity, the fallibility of knowledge by concepts, and the theory of i'tibārīāt.

    Methods of Study

    Conceptual analysis constitutes the main method of this study. The paper develops a theory about unobservables through an analysis of Allāma Tabātabāī’s philosophical views. Although the theory that is developed has not been expressed by Tabātabāī, it can be built based on his views. The approach of the paper is comparable to those of contemporary neoAristotelian philosophers of science. The paper’s argument, however, is based on the views of Tabātabāī rather than on Aristotle’s.

    Findings

    According to the theory of the ontological primacy of existence over quiddity, existence is external, whereas quiddity is mental. Quiddity is a presentation of external existence in our mind, or in other words, minds abstract the quiddity of things from their external existence. Relying on this view, the paper argues that an unobservable exists if it has real effects, and that the quiddity of things is constructed in our minds. Although this construction is mainly inevitable in the case of ordinary objects such as tables, the construction of scientific models describing unobservables is (partly) contingent. Furthermore, the theory of i'tibārīāt explains how mental processes ascribe the definition of, or a judgment made about, a thing to another thing. On the basis of this theory, the paper explains how assumptive and metaphorical elements contribute to building scientific models. The paper also analyzes the theoretical concepts that describe unobservables, and argues that they can be categorized neither as ordinary quiddity concepts (such as the concept of a table), nor as logical concepts (such as contraposition), nor as philosophical concepts (such as existence), nor as practical i'tibārīāt (such as good and bad). Nevertheless, they share similarities to quiddity concepts and to those of practical i’tibārīāt. Although theoretical concepts are assumptive and metaphorical, they can represent aspects of reality. After all, our knowledge of unobservables is gained by concepts, but this knowledge is different from the knowledge of ordinary objects in that theoretical assumptions and metaphors, which are the characteristics of i'tibārīāt, play a central role in the advancement of our (fallible) knowledge of unobservables.

    Conclusion

    Unobservable entities exist, and their theoretical descriptions are truthful. At the same time, several contingent factors are employed in the construction of the theoretical models of unobservables, and therefore scientific knowledge of them is fallible. The realist view of this paper takes into account the constructive and contingent features of scientific modeling. Scientific knowledge represents reality to the extent that it relies on external existence. But be that as it may, scientific knowledge is contingent because of the role historically contingent elements play in its construction.

    Keywords: Unobservables, Scientific Realism, Allāma Tabātabāī, The Ontological Primacy of Existence, Fallibility, I'tibārīāt
  • Roozbeh Zare* Pages 127-157
    Introduction

    Modern science has a unique and undeniable role in the formation of a new western civilization. The success of this modern type of human inquiry in solving epistemological problems within the scope of its subject matter and its practical achievements in improving many aspects of human life gradually led to the formation of a doctrine that seeks to extend the boundaries of science and the scientific method to other fields of human knowledge or other aspects of human life. This doctrine is called "scientism".

    Method

    The purpose of this article is to introduce a clear picture or conceptual schema of the doctrine of scientism, distinguish its different types clearly and ultimately propose an integrated or comprehensive version of that doctrine. It is claimed that this task only could be done completely by showing the relation of scientism with other related concepts. These concepts together make a family resemblance through which the claim of scientism could be understood rightly. So some other doctrine like Naturalism, Physicalism, Materialism, Reductionism, and Mechanism is also described briefly and finally focused on the synthesis of epistemic scientism and methodological naturalism.

    Finding

    According to the close correlation between scientism and the modern notion of science, this paper begins with the history of the generation and development of the idea of scientism and traces it back to the 17th century when modern science was generated. Then different types of scientism are formulated and the discussion of the types of scientism was ended up with a comprehensive definition. Epistemic scientism is declared as the comprehensive notion of scientism which claims that any true knowledge or genuine explanation should be gained through the method of science. In the next step, the main concepts related to this doctrine are listed and the similarities between them are stated, finally, naturalism proposes as the most important and modified version of the idea lies behind all these related concepts. So naturalism is analyzed carefully and the two branches of naturalism (i.e. Methodological Naturalism and Ontological or Metaphysical Naturalism) are distinguished and discussed. It is claimed that the hardcore scientific method is restricted by methodological naturalism that states the neutrality of scientific explanation according to supernatural entities. Methodological Naturalism takes the role of the regulatory principle for the scientific method.

    Conclusion

    it is summed up that scientism leads to impermissible expansion of science and cannot also make a suitable justification for science itself. Naturalism also ends up with an incomplete explanation for natural phenomena. The synthesis of scientism and naturalism also implies atheism and cannot be compatible with the theistic worldview. Also, we should not equate modern science and empirical knowledge or sense data. Modern science is a modified system that is based on some philosophical premises like naturalism. These premises are given a priory and as a dogma that also challenges the position of empirical knowledge.

  • Seyed Mohammad Hossein Mirdamadi*, Mohammad Bidhendi Pages 159-189
    Introduction

    We mean the interpretation of the meaning of the text in its own way, that is, the method of reason or the esoteric method that can be rationally explained. Mulla Sadra's interpretations have been criticized in articles and some books and are usually not accepted. In this article, sixteen criticisms have been answered and the rules given in response to the criticisms have been explained. The same criterion can be answered for the vast majority of criticisms of Sadra's interpretations, which we have dealt with in accordance with the volume of the article. The rules under consideration here are: It is a common and main meaning among different instances, which is adorned with all the superfluous features of the instance to the extent that it includes its single instance. 2. The rule of an independent view of the verses; understanding the esoteric and interpretive dimensions is not necessarily limited to the contextual links in the text of the Qur'an and may be obtained by an independent view. According to the explanatory basis of the Qur'an (which is obtained from the verses in the description of the Qur'an), it is possible to look independently at the verses and sections of the Qur'an, regardless of what is copied, restricted and specific outside the Qur'an. Interpretation, regardless of the specific frameworks of the narrations, is the cause of revelation and is based on the evidence of the Qur'an itself. 3. The rule of interpretation by changing the context of the text; the philosophical basis of this rule of interpretation is that the worlds, while being related to each other because they are truth and subtlety, also have aspects of distinction and difference. Therefore, in the text of the Qur'an, we find a connection between all the worlds and different fields of human existence, and we see that the verses about nature and the world and the heavens are side by side with the verses concerning monotheistic teachings and psychic truths and speech. From the heavens come side by side the discussion of the world of nature and the earth and human beings and the talk of history according to the world of nature and creation, and the Qur'an constantly communicates between these spheres, which is why this interpretive rule (expression One area in another area) is very useful. According to Mulla Sadra, the scholar, man and the Qur'an are three different readings of a few truths from the ways of interpreting the Qur'an, paying attention to this correspondence. 4- The rule of necessity of discipline, the rules of which will be mentioned in the text, therefore, any interpretation of this rule is not accepted. 5. The rule of existential unity Another rule that can be considered in the interpretations is the principle of existential unity. We have in many narrations that the interpretation of some Qur'anic truths has meant the Ahl al-Bayt (as). Found and their souls are included. And 6- the rule of different credentials of the world of intellect; The best reason to license something is to make it happen. For example, the divine attributes from its single essence and the abstraction of the concepts of goods and seasons from people of its kind and the like, is the best reason for this rule. It is in these cases that it is said that two or more things exist in one being. But the main purpose of this article is to respond to criticisms, and since this response needed to explain the rules, we first explained the inferential rules. Our method is content-based analysis and the research finding is the responsiveness of existing criticisms based on the logic of interpretation. In his ontology, Mulla Sadra has used interpretation as a method and his use of interpretation has caused his philosophy and wisdom to reflect and excel. Although he has used interpretation both in the interpretation of the universe and in the understanding and interpretation of the Qur'an and the narrations of the infallibles, he has not formulated the rules of interpretation anywhere in his writings. This article, for its part, shows the basics of extracting these rules and principles. By identifying the rules of interpretation in different dimensions, we can gain a deeper understanding of existence, especially the book and tradition, and take more effective steps in understanding and completing the transcendent wisdom.

    Keywords: Logic of Interpretation, Critique of Interpretation, Rules of Interpretation, Sadr al-Muta'alle
  • Gholam-Ali Moghaddam* Pages 191-215
    Introduction

    Perception issues are one of the most important topics in epistemology in various philosophical schools in the recent period, Allameh Tabatabai offered a new perspective on perception, which is based on specific principles and with specific results. According to Allameh, epistemology is based on intuition of rational truths but because of communicate with the Material preliminaries It is called Imaginary knowledge.

    Methodology

    The present article is a theoretical research, so in this article, the library research method has been used. The steps in this method are determining the problem, formulating a brief and detailed plan, referring and collecting sources and information, writing and summarizing, analyzing and processing data, and presenting the desired result. Therefore, the focus of this article is on library research methods. According to this method, after preparing the research plan, various sources have been collected from existing libraries and software, then the detailed research plan is prepared and its important chapters are identified. Then, various philosophical and mystical sources are referred and research papers are prepared. Then, the final analysis and writing of different chapters of the article are performed and the desired results are inferred and argued during the research. . Based on this method, Allameh's view on the issue of sensory perception has been explained. Also, the analytical-comparative method has been compared with the view of mystics on this issue, and the closeness of Allameh's view to mystics has been proven in terms of principles.

    Findings

    Allameh Tabatabai has moved against other philosophers in explaining the quality of sensory perception. Famous philosophers explained sensory perception using the external nature of objects whose imagination are produced in the mind, but Allameh explained the nature of sensory perception without using it. In this particular view, Allameh Tabatabai has crossed philosophical principles and approached special mystical principles. According to Allameh, in his view, close to mystical principles, he has not interpreted the universe according to the levels of existence. Rather, he has explained the universe with the theory of the emergence and ventricle of the existence. In this theory, Allameh, like mystics, has spoken about the inclusion and encirclement of existential worlds and their presence together. This proves the closeness of Allameh's view to the mystical view Contrary to the philosophical view, Allameh Tabatabai discusses the precedence of present knowledge, which is one of the foundations of Allameh's epistemology in the realization of sensory perception, and it can be considered as arising from the same view of Allameh's mystical ontology. The popular view considers nature as the mediator of perception, which is the criterion of the correspondence between the mind and the outside. According to Allameh, the beings of the higher world belong to the sensory perceptions, which are the cause of these material and natural beings and have all their perfections. According to Allameh, the sensory perception of the material world is the same as the presence perception of the reality of these objects in the higher world. Allameh's view is close to mystical intuition in this respect.

    Conclusion

    Allameh Tabatabai has a special point of view in explaining sensory perception. In this view, it has crossed the common philosophical foundations and approached the mystical foundations in ontology and epistemology

    Keywords: Allameh Tabataba'i, Imaginary, Sensual Perception, Intellectual Intuitions, Imaginary Intuitions, Knowledge by Presence, Imaginary World
  • Razi Mayah, Sasan Sharafi*, Mansoreh Shekar Amiz Pages 217-245
    Introduction

    Construal in Cognitive linguistics, is a term that refers to study and analysis of a particular situation from different angles. This term in its original meaning refers to a special semantic feature that is used in all linguistic terms and can be generalized. In simple terms, «construal» and its different aspects can be evaluated in all models of cognitive linguistics, especially semantics. This article tries to prove the issue that it is possible to analyze and understand more deeply the Quranic stories and verses in context of Langakerˋs (2008) theory of «scene consttual» which is itself a field of cognitive linguistics. This field, as stated earlier, is a large part of the science of cognitive linguistics.

    Method

    The data of this research are taken from Quranic verses .The whole Surah of Yusuf (pbuh) which contains a very interesting, eloquent and fluent story and contains 111 verses is considered as a source of the statistical work and the main subject of research.In this research ,the text of the Holy Quran which is the words and phrases is not considered , but the deep meaning and the inner semantic layers of the verses are examined. In order to achieve this goal, a study of the translation of the mysterious verses of the Holy Quran does not lead us to the desired meaning and we have to rely on opinions of the high-ranking and educated commentators such as Alameh Tabatabaee and Makarem shirazi in their famous and well-known books of the analysing the Quran; Al-Mizan and Nemuneh. The variables of this research are ; different types of dimension in scene construal (viewpoint, profiling, scanning and focus ) which were introduced by langaker .

    Findings

    By examining the results of this research, important points can be realised. First of all, research In Quranic verses and their deep and profound meaning can be analysed by relying on scientific, literary, philosophical and specifically linguistic theories and very extraordinary and wonderful results can be discovered and recorded. Sometimes this results and outcomes of researches conducted in the Quranic-Scientific fields turn the view of the researchers to issues that have not been experienced in the past. Secondly, as a result of this article it can be concluded that the analysis of Quranic verses on the basis of scientific and linguistics theories in the same direction of theological and religious interpretations and analyzed of the seminary and confirm these interpretations in terms of science and linguistic principles.

    Conclusion

    In the analysis of one of the most beautiful stories of the Holy Quran based on the framework of Langaker's (2008) theory of scene construal and its various, dimension which itself is one of the most controversial theories anchored in the field of cognitive linguistics. We have reached the important conclusion that by examining and interpreting the verses of the Holy Quran and specially the wonderful and instructive story of this divine book. Thus, we can analyze the story of Yusuf and other stories in the holy book in a more scientific way from another point of view.

    Keywords: Construal, Verses' Viewpoints, Profiling, Focus
  • Mohsen Khayatkashani* Pages 247-264
    Introduction

    In The Mind and Cosmos, Thomas Nigel argues that naturalism has failed to provide a complete explanation of the universe. Main of Nigel's objections to naturalism are the issues that arise in explaining the mind through a naturalistic view. Naturalism has so far failed to provide a complete explanation that includes mental phenomena, especially the quality of consciousness. Nigel's proposition is that a more complete explanation of existence of all aspects such as consciousness can be given by taking a metaphysical view, similar to that which existed in Aristotle's teleology. In this article, it will be said that Aristotle's theory is not enough to solve this and the problem can be solved by taking Avicenna's teleology.

    Method of Study

    Nigel opposes the extremist view of explaining the universe as such a naturalist do. In The Mind and the Cosmos, Nigel presents his critique of naturalism from the point of view of mind-related issues, including consciousness, values, and cognition. The reason for the inability of naturalism to provide a complete explanation of the universe from Nigel's point of view is that it uses tools designed for quantitative measurements; when something like consciousness has a qualitative nature. Nigel's argument for the flaws of naturalism is as follows: 1- theory of naturalism necessarily needs to provide a comprehensive physical explanation of all the phenomena in the universe. 2- Consciousness is one of the phenomena of the universe. 3- Consciousness is a phenomenon that can’t be explained in the physical sciences. 4- Therefore, the theory of naturalism is not complete. Contrary to what naturalists think, complete explanation of universe must have order in matter from the beginning. Perhaps, Nigel thinks, in explaining consciousness as a part of universe, one can rely on ideas such as Aristotelian teleology which is related to the basic elements of the universe. Therefore, the end of the formation of the conscious man has been within matter from the beginning.

    Findings

    According to Aristotle, the end in natural affairs is something that has existed in an organism from the beginning. The apple tree has an end that is eternal. Such a view is inconsistent with the theory of evolution, which is of interest to scientists and Nigel. An important idea that Avicenna points out is that motion is raised in physics, and if we go to causality in metaphysics, go to existence. In the discussion of metaphysics, it is not like the physics of motion and change, but it means what exists or does not exist. The difference between the actual and the ultimate cause is a tool we can use to have complete explanation of the universe.

    Conclusion

    According to Aristotle, teleology is something that entered ontology because of its epistemological need, and therefore entered metaphysics from nature. But in his philosophical system, Avicenna discusses the end from a theological and metaphysical point of view and from there to physics. Therefore, with Avicenna's argument and his metaphysical approach, one can explain the emergence of consciousness in matter. He can believe on natural causes and evolution and hold teleological cause to explain the creation of consciousness from the ordered matter at the same time. In other words, the end intended in Avicenna's view can sum up with the natural history of the formation of species.

    Keywords: Teleology, Consciousness, Nagel, Avicenna, Aristotle, Naturalism