فهرست مطالب

مجله جستار های زبانی
سال سیزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 67، فروردین و اردیبهشت 1401)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1401/02/27
  • تعداد عناوین: 23
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  • رضا پیش قدم*، شیما ابراهیمی صفحات 1-27

    چگونگی استفاده از واژگان در ارتباط با مخاطب یکی از موثرترین راه های تقویت مکالمه موفق است. واژگانی که سخنگو در مکالمه خود انتخاب می کند، نقش آغازگر رابطه را با مخاطب دارد. چنان چه سخنران این واژگان را با آگاهی انتخاب کند و آنان جذابیت و کاربرد لازم را داشته باشند، می توانند تاثیر شگرفی بر مخاطب بگذارند. بنابراین، هرچه واژگان با ظرافت، خلاقیت و متناسب با موضوع و نوع مخاطب گزینش و تزیین شوند، احتمال موفقیت سخنران بیشتر است. ازاین رو، در پژوهش حاضر مفهوم زینتگری زبانی به عنوان رویکردی میان رشته ای در برقراری ارتباط موثر مطرح شده است. منظور از زینتگری زبانی، تزیین کردن کلام به لحاظ محتوایی و معنایی برای تاثیرگذاری بیشتر بر روی مخاطب در حین مکالمه است؛ درحقیقت زینتگری زبانی و تزیین کلام، هویت و شخصیت افراد را که در هوش کلامی آنان ریشه دارد، نشان می دهد و با تاکید بر کارکرد اصلی زبان، باعث جذاب شدن کلام می شود. عطف به اهمیت هیجانات، فرهنگ و حواس در مکالمه موفق و درنظرگرفتن مفهوم پساتاثیر در گامی فراتر از توانش ارتباطی، نگارندگان در پژوهش حاضر راهکارهای تزیینات ادبی، روانی، فرهنگی و حسی را در زینتگری زبانی پیشنهاد داده اند و معتقدند افراد با استفاده از فکرآمیزی، هیجان آمیزی، فرهنگ آمیزی و حس آمیزی می توانند کلام خود را آراسته کنند و شاهد ارتقای کیفیت تعاملات و ارتباطات روزمره باشند.

    کلیدواژگان: زینتگری زبانی، پساتاثیر، فکرآمیزی، هیجان آمیزی، فرهنگ آمیزی، حس آمیزی
  • راضیه صادقپور، پریوش صفا، محمودرضا گشمردی* صفحات 29-64

    بسیاری ازمشکلات موجود مدرسان ازعدم وجود برنامه نظارتی مدون نشات می گیرد و پیاده سازی نظارت آموزشی بصورت اصولی می تواندنه تنها در حل مشکلات مدرسان موثرباشد، بلکه موجب افزایش انگیزه آن ها شود. از اینرو؛ استفاده از یک مدل نظارتی آموزشی می تواند، به بهینه سازی کیفیت عملکرد نظارتی مشاوران آموزشی کمک نماید. لذا هدف ازاین پژوهش بررسی اثر بخشی مدل نظارت آموزشی در کلاس های زبان فرانسه درایران با بهره گیری ازنظریه کنش موقعیت بنیادبود. این مطالعه به روش شبه آزمایشی از نوع پیش آزمون- پس آزمون تک گروهی انجام گرفت. جامعه آماری شامل کلیه مشاوران آموزشی بودند که تعداد 7 نفراز آن ها بصورت نمونه گیری در دسترس انتخاب شدند. متغیر وابسته (کیفیت نظارت) قبل و بعد از اجرای متغیر مستقل (مدل بهینه ساز نظارت) اندازه گیری گردید. درمقایسه میانگین نمره کیفیت نظارت درگروه مشاوران قبل و بعد از مداخله آموزشی و با توجه به نتایج حاصل از مطالعه، میانگین نمره و انحراف معیار قبل از مداخله (111.42±19.07) و پس ازمداخله(155.85±22.13)به دست آمد و براساس آزمون تی زوجی با توجه به سطح معناداری به دست آمده، اختلاف آماری معنا داری بین میانگین نمرات قبل و پس از مداخله مشاهده گردید. بنابراین آموزش مشاوران آموزشی براساس مدل نظارتی پیشنهادی در سطح معناداری (p <0.05) اثربخش بود. باتوجه به یافته های پژوهش می توان نتیجه گرفت که، با بهره گیری از مدل طراحی شده نظارت آموزشی، می توان مشاوران آموزشی، با کیفیت عملکرد موثر، تربیت نمود، زیرا که اصول نظارت آموزشی قابل یادگیری می باشد و این نیز به نوبه خود، منجر به موفقیت در فرایند آموزش-یادگیری می شود.

    کلیدواژگان: بهینه سازی، دوره آموزشی، مشاور، نظریه کنش موقعیت بنیاد
  • رجاء ابوعلی*، زینب اکبری صفحات 65-97

    نقش زبان در ساختن هویت یکی از مهم ترین بحث های نظری مدرن در باب هویت است. ساختارگرایی و پساساختارگرایی با قاطعیت خاص بر نقش سازنده زبان در شکل گیری هویت تاکید می کنند. پژوهش پیش رو با این پیش فرض که زبان ابزاری قدرتمند در برساخت گفتمان هویتی محسوب می شود، با بررسی دو رمان آخرین دخترو دختری که از چنگ داعش گریخت نشان می دهد که زنان ایزدی با کدام سازوکارهای زبانی ژانر «زندگی نامه خودنوشت» را به مثابه راهبردی در مبارزه علیه گفتمان سلطه به خدمت می گیرند و با عرضه پادگفتمان هایی متفاوت به ساخت شکنی گفتمان های مسلط و کلیشه سازی های جهانی می پردازند تا برخی از پیامدها یا بازخوردهای منفی تجاوز و ظلم به جامعه استعمارزد ه ایزدی را بزدایند و در حیات بخشیدن به سنت های فرهنگی و قومی ایفای نقش کنند. در این راستا از نظریه گفتمان «لاکلایو و موف» و ابزارهای روش شناختی آن برای تجزیه و تحلیل داده های پژوهش بهره بردیم .نتایج نشان می دهد چهار گفتمان در کشمکش و تخاصم با یکدیگر درصدد بازنمایی هویت زن ایزدی برآمده اند: الف) گفتمان «حزب ملی گرای کرد»؛ ب) گفتمان «دولت مرکزی عراق و اعراب»؛ ج) گفتمان «داعش» و د) گفتمان «نویسندگان زن ایزدی». زنان ایزدی می کوشند با تمام هویت هایی که گفتمان های مسلط برایشان تعریف کرده اند همچون برده، قربانی تجاوز و پناهنده مبارزه کنند و هویت های تازه ای چون رهبر ایزدی و مدافع حقوق زنان و ایزدیان برای خود برسازند.

    کلیدواژگان: زندگی نامه خودنوشت، هویت، زنان ایزدی، نظریه گفتمان، لاکلائو و موف
  • صدیقه سادات مقداری*، معصومه یوسفی صفحات 99-127

    این مقاله برآن است تا با رویکرد زبان شناسی زیست محیطی، به تحلیل انتقادی متون تبلیغاتی مدارس طبیعت بپردازد. روش به کار رفته در این تحقیق توصیفی تحلیلی است و متون تبلیغاتی مدارس طبیعت را به منزله داده های خود برگزیده است. داده ها از طریق کانال های تلگرامی مدارس طبیعت، طی سه سال (1395، 1396 و 1397) جمع آوری شده اند. این متون غالبا برگرفته از وهاب زاده (1392، 1395) هستند. درنهایت تعداد 45 متن گفتمان مدار انتخاب شده است که درمجموع از 274 بندجمله تشکیل شده اند، و هر بند جمله به شیوه دستور نقشی نظام مند هلیدی و از منظر فرانقش های تجربی، بینافردی، و متنی و درنهایت با رویکرد زیست محیطی مورد تحلیل قرار گرفت. مسئله پژوهش این است که متون تبلیغاتی مدارس طبیعت چه دیدگاهی را نسبت به محیط زیست ترویج می دهند. هدف این بررسی یافتن رابطه انسان و محیط زیست در مدارس طبیعت و پی بردن به دیدگاه و نگرش این مدارس است. نتایج حاکی از این است که محتوای 168 بند یعنی تقریبا 61 درصد بندها، انسان را به حفظ محیط زیست و استفاده صحیح از طبیعت تشویق می کند و در 149 مورد، یعنی تقریبا 55 درصد، رابطه دوستانه انسان و طبیعت یا طبیعت دوستی وجود دارد. درنتیجه این مدارس در تغییر نگرش انسان نسبت به محیط زیست نقش اساسی دارند و کودکان را به حفاظت از طبیعت سوق می دهند.

    کلیدواژگان: زبان شناسی زیست محیطی، تحلیل گفتمان انتقادی، مدارس طبیعت، دستور نقشی نظام مند
  • شیرین آبادی خواه*، معصومه ولی پور صفحات 129-166

    هدف از انجام این پژوهش ارزیابی نیازهای زبانی و شناسایی اولویت کاربرد مهارت‏های زبانی (خواندن، شنیداری، نوشتن و صحبت کردن) در موقعیت‏های مختلف(خصوصی، دانشگاهی و حرفه ‏ای) است. روش پژوهش، توصیفی استنباطی و ابزار گردآوری اطلاعات، پرسش‏نامه‏ای متشکل از 49 گزینه است. جامعه آماری متشکل از 199 دانشجو (73 مرد و 126 زن) در مقاطع کارشناسی (69 نفر)، کارشناسی ارشد (67 نفر) و دکتری (63 نفر) مشغول به تحصیل در دانشگاه مازندران بود. پاسخ های شرکت‏کنندگان با استفاده از نرم افزار آماری علوم اجتماعی کدگذاری و تجزیه و تحلیل شد. به طور کلی، نتایج حاصل از مقایسه میانگین‏ مهارت‏ها دلالت بر آن داشت که با افزایش سطح تحصیلات، نیازهای دانشجویان به کاربرد مهارت های زبانی  به خصوص در موقعیت‏های دانشگاهی به طور پیوسته افزایش می‏یابد. همچنین مهارت‏های دریافتی (خواندن و شنیدن) کاربرد بیشتری نسبت به مهارت های تولیدی (صحبت کردن و نوشتن) در هر سه گروه دارد. نتایج تحلیل داده ‏ها از طریق آزمون های غیرپارامتری نشان داد که تفاوت معنی‏داری در مهارت خواندن بین تمامی گروه ها، در مهارت نوشتن بین گروه دکتری با دو گروه  کارشناسی و ارشد و در مهارت صحبت کردن بین گروه دکتری و کارشناسی وجود داشت. از نظر موقعیت کاربرد زبانی، درحالی که نیازهای شرکت کنندگان در مقطع کارشناسی به موقعیت‏های زندگی خصوصی آن ها مرتبط بود، دانشجویان مقطع دکتری، اغلب نیازهای خود را در حوزه‏های آموزشی و دانشگاهی بیان کردند. در موقعیت حرفه ‏ای  و در مهارت شنیداری تفاوت معنی‏ داری بین مقاطع مختلف مشاهده نشد. این مطالعه، پیشنهاداتی برای  پژوهشگران، مدرسان و یادگیرندگان زبان انگلیسی دارد.

    کلیدواژگان: تجزیه و تحلیل نیازها، دانشجویان مقاطع مختلف، مهارت های زبانی، موقعیت های کنونی، نیازهای زبانی
  • آنیتا الداغی* صفحات 167-197

    مطالعه حاضر تاثیر متغیر مستقل دست ورزی را بر متغیرهای وابسته پژوهش یعنی دست نویسی و انگیزه نوشتن دانش آموزان دارای اختلال نوشتن در منطقه 18 آموزش و پرورش شهر تهران را   مورد بررسی قرار داده است. به منظور بررسی دقیق روابط بین متغیرهای مستقل با متغیرهای وابسته روش تجربی با  طرح پیش آزمون پس آزمون به منزله روش تحقیق برگزیده شد. براین اساس جامعه آماری شامل تمام دانش آموزان دارای اختلالات نوشتاری پایه اول تا سوم مقطع ابتدایی منطقه 18 آموزش و پرورش شهر تهران در سال تحصیلی 1397 1398هستند. نمونه آماری به صورت هدفمند انتخاب شده است و شامل 30 نفر از دانش آموزانی است که دارای اختلال نوشتاری در پایه های اول تا سوم ابتدایی مشغول به تحصیل بودند. نمونه موردپژوهش به صورت تصادفی در دو گروه آزمایش و کنترل قرار گرفتند و به گروه آزمایش به مدت 21 جلسه آموزش مهارت های دست ورزی داده شد. برای سنجش متغیرهای موردمطالعه در این پژوهش از آزمون مهارت دست نویسی مینه سوتا، آزمون هوش ریون رنگی و آزمون محقق ساخته انگیزه نوشتن استفاده شده است. به منظور اینکه کودکان انتخاب شده دارای ناتوانی ذهنی نباشند از آزمون هوش ریون رنگی استفاده شد و آزمون مینه سوتا و انگیزه نوشتن نیز در مراحل پیش آزمون و پس آزمون مورد استفاده قرار گرفت. همچنین برنامه حرکتی مورد استفاده در این تحقیق منتخبی از مقیاس رشد حرکتی لینکلن اوزورتسکی است که شامل مهارت های حرکتی ظریف مربوط به دست است. سپس برای آزمون فرضیات پژوهش برپایه اطلاعات جمع آوری شده از آزمون تحلیل کواریانس استفاده شده است. نتایج تجزیه و تحلیل داده ها نشان داد که بین میانگین نمرات پس آزمون در دو گروه آزمایش و کنترل بعد از آموزش مهارت های دست ورزی تفاوت معنی داری وجود دارد. بدین معنا که آموزش مهارت های دست ورزی بر  مهارت دست نویسی (یکسانی اندازه حروف و لغات، حفظ راستای حروف نسبت به خطوط نوشتاری و تناسب فضای بین حروف) و انگیزه نوشتن دانش آموزان دارای اختلالات یادگیری تاثیر معنادار دارد و صحت شکل حروف و خوانایی حروف تحت تاثیر آموزش مهارت های دست ورزی بهبود پیدا نمی کنند. پس بهتر است از راه های دیگر و از طریق آموزش های دیگر این مهارت ها ارتقا یابند.

    کلیدواژگان: دست ورزی، دست نویسی، انگیزه نوشتن، اختلالات یادگیری، اختلالات نوشتاری
  • رضا قنبری عبدالملکی*، آیلین فیروزیان پور اصفهانی صفحات 199-232

    تحلیل گفتمان انتقادی رویکردی است که زبان را به عنوان عملی اجتماعی در ارتباط با عواملی همچون قدرت و ایدیولوژی موردمطالعه قرار می‏دهد. با توجه به این رویکرد، پژوهش حاضر کوشیده است تا با کاربست مولفه‏های جامعه‏شناختی معنایی، نشان دهد که جلال آل‏احمد از طریق بازنمایی شخصیت‏های «دره خزان‏زده»، چگونه به بیان ایدیولوژی خود پرداخته و در پساسقوط رضاشاه، به چه نحو کنشگران اجتماعی آن دوره را به تصویر کشیده است. در این داستان کوتاه، ساخت‏های ‏زبانی در خدمت مولفه ‏های جامعه‏ شناختی معنایی قرار دارند و از این نظر، الگوی ون لیوون ابزار مناسبی برای تحلیل متن و کشف رابطه میان زبان و ایدیولوژی نویسنده است. پرسش اصلی در این پژوهش، آن است که آیا نویسنده به وسیله بازنمایی کنشگران اجتماعی، توانسته است از ایدیولوژی پنهان خود پرده بردارد؟ یافته ‏های تحقیق نشان می‏دهد که این امر، به وقوع پیوسته و آل‏احمد با استفاده از شیوه‏های کتمان، پس‏زمینه ‏سازی، فعال‏سازی، منفعل ‏سازی تشخص‏ بخشی و تشخص‏زدایی، ایدیولوژی و دیدگاه ‏های خود را در داستان بیان کرده است. وی با استفاده از راهبرد کلی «حذف»، هویت مقامات عالی‏رتبه دولت پهلوی را پنهان می‏کند و با «پس ‏زمینه ‏سازی»، آن‏ها را کاملا نادیده می‏گیرد. نهادهای «دولت» و «ارتش» در گفتمان فعال‏نمایی شده، و «کارگران» و «نخبگان»، منفعل‏ نمایی شده‏اند تا با برجسته کردن ستمی که به آن‏ها روا داشته شده است، در کانون توجه مخاطب قرار گیرند.

    کلیدواژگان: تحلیل گفتمان انتقادی، ایدئولوژی، مولفه های جامعه شناختی معنایی، ون لیوون، آل احمد
  • عیسی متقی زاده*، علی حاجی خانی، سمیه مدیری صفحات 233-259

    نویسندگان معمولا برای اثرگذاری بهتر بر ذهن خواننده، مناسب ترین سبک را برمی گزینند. سبک نقش مهمی را در انتقال محتوی ایفا می کند، زیرا میل و اشتیاق افراد به خواندن یک مطلب، بستگی زیادی به سبک نوشتاری آن دارد. سبک، آینه تمام نمای نویسنده است و لذا تغییر آن، نشان دهنده تاثیر عوامل بیرونی و درونی بر صاحب سبک است. سبک شناسی دانشی است که به توصیف ویژگی های شکلی یک اثر و آنگاه رابطه این ویژگی ها با تفسیر اثر می پردازد و یکی از شاخه های آن، سبک شناسی آماری است. این رویکرد، کمیت و شمارش پدیده های لغوی در متن را موردتوجه قرار داده و بر پایه نتیجه این آمارگیری، حکم صادر می کند؛ به عبارت دیگر، از کمیت برای رسیدن به کیفیت، استفاده می کند. این مقاله به سبک شناسی آماری در نامه های نهج البلاغه پرداخته است. نامه های 23، 30 و 73 به عنوان نمونه انتخاب شده و تفاوت های سبک آن ها طبق دو نظریه سبک شناسی آماری، یعنی معادله بوزیمان و نظریه جانسون و با بهره گیری از روش توصیفی تحلیلی و آماری، پردازش شده است. نتیجه اجرای این دو نظریه بر نمونه های انتخابی بدین صورت است که طبق معادله بوزیمان، سبک نامه 30 ادبی تر از دو نامه دیگر بوده و سبک نامه های 23 و 73 تقریبا مشابه است. همچنین طبق نظریه جانسون، غنای واژگانی نامه 73، بیش از دو نامه دیگر بوده و نامه های 23 و 30 تقریبا از غنای واژگانی یکسانی برخوردار هستند. نتایج تحقیق حاکی از تاثیر بارز شرایط اجتماعی بر چگونگی انتخاب کلمات توسط امام علی (ع) است.

    کلیدواژگان: سبک شناسی آماری، بوزیمان، جانسون، نامه های نهج البلاغه
  • سجاد اسماعیلی*، دانش محمدی رکعتی صفحات 261-298

    محیط یادگیری درکنار سایر ارکان یادگیری یکی از مهم‏ترین عوامل بهبود برنامه درسی موفق و به تبع آن پیشرفت تحصیلی است. اهمیت محیط در یادگیری زبان با توجه به ضرورت کاربرد آن در محیط‏های واقعی، دوچندان است. علی‏رغم تلاش‏ گروه‏های عربی کشور برای تقویت محیط مکالمه عربی اما همچنان به نظر می‏رسد این محیط در بیشتر گروه‏ها به زبان فارسی باشد. اینکه علی‏رغم این تلاش‏ها چه موانعی سبب عدم شکل‏گیری چنین محیطی شده، مسیله‏ این پژوهش است. بنابراین جستار حاضر می‏کوشد تا با رویکرد پدیدارشناسی و روش تحقیق کیفی، چالش‏های شکل‏گیری محیط‏ یادگیری مکالمه عربی را از طریق مصاحبه با دانشجویان تحلیل و راهکارهایی برای رفع آن ها پیشنهاد دهد. برخی از یافته‏ها نشان داد؛ چالش‏های محیط‏ یادگیری زبان عربی، شامل مواردی مثل عدم استفاده از فعالیت‏های گروهی، اضطراب، عدم اجبار به تکلم عربی، ارایه فارسی بیشتر درس ها، عدم تکلم استادان به عربی در محیط گروه و فقدان تکالیف مناسب برای خارج از کلاس است.

    کلیدواژگان: پدیدارشناسی، محیط های یادگیری، آموزش و یادگیری زبان عربی، مکالمه عربی
  • وحیده ابوالحسنی زاده*، اسما ایزدی صفحات 299-326

    زمان آغاز واک‌ فاصله زمانی بین رهش همخوان‌های انسدادی و آغاز تکانه‌های حنجره هنگام تولید واکه بعد یا همخوان رسای بعد از آن است. در این پژوهش زمان آغاز واک‌ به‌عنوان یکی از مهم‏ترین سرنخ‌های صوت شناختی واکداری انسدادی زبان فارسی در جایگاه آغازه کلمات در کودکان مبتلا به شکاف کام و لب ترمیم‌شده بررسی می‏شود. بدین‏منظور از دو گروه 6 نفره با میانگین سنی 11 سال، گروهی شامل دو پسر و چهار دختر دارای شکاف کام و لب ترمیم‌شده و گروهی که هیچ نوع ناهنجاری در مجرای گفتار خود نداشتند (سالم) شامل دو پسر و چهار دختر، خواسته شد کلمات با ساختار CVC را که متشکل از همخوان‌های انسدادی آغازه و پایانه یکسان و واکه‌های زبان فارسی بودند پس از پژوهشگران تکرار کنند. کلمات موردنظر توسط میکروفون شور ضبط شد، سپس با استفاده از نرم‌افزار پرت مقدار زمان آغاز واک در هر یک از همخوان‌های انسدادی اندازه‌گیری شد و نتایج به‌دست‌آمده بین دو گروه شرکت‌کننده موردمقایسه قرار گرفت. نتایج نشان داد که متغیرهای بیماری، جنسیت، واک‌داری و محل تولید همخوان‌های انسدادی تاثیر معناداری بر زمان آغاز واک این همخوان‌ها دارند. زمان آغاز واک در کودکان سالم کم‌تر از کودکان بیمار بود و پسرها همخوان‌ها را با زمان آغاز واک کم‌تری نسبت‌به دخترها تولید می‌کردند. به‌علاوه، همخوان‌های بی‌واک با زمان آغاز واک بیشتری نسبت‌به همخوان‌های واک‌دار تولید می‌شدند و با حرکت از سمت لب‌ها به سمت انتهای مجرای گفتار زمان آغاز واک در همخوان‌ها افزایش پیدا کرد.

    کلیدواژگان: شکاف کام ولب، جنسیت، واک داری، همخوان های انسدادی
  • احمد تمیم داری*، شیما باقری اهرنجانی صفحات 327-356

    کلمن بارکس از مطرح ترین مترجمان آثار مولانا در آمریکاست. آثار او به دلیل دخل و تصرفات متعدد در اشعار مولانا موردنقد قرار گرفته است. منتقدان کلمن بارکس، دلایل مختلفی برای تصرفات بسیار او در آثار مولانا برشمرده اند که از مهم ترین آن ها می توان به عدم آشنایی او با زبان فارسی، فرهنگ و دین مولانا و تحریف و حذف عامدانه عناصر اسلامی اشاره کرد. در این پژوهش کوشیده ایم شواهدی در نقض این فرضیات ارایه دهیم. سپس برمبنای تحلیل گفتمان و ایده دال مرکزی در نظریه لاکلا و موف نشان دهیم که علت اصلی تصرفات بارکس، تشخیص نادرست او از گفتمان مولانا و یکسان پنداری دال های مرکزی در همه آثار مولاناست. این امر ساختار و دلالت تمثیل های مثنوی را شکسته و سبب شده است که شخصیت ها، داستان های قرآنی، سمبل ها و سنت های عرفانی به اشیاء، اشخاص و اعمالی عینی تبدیل شوند که همین موضوع، بارکس را به تصرف در آثار مولانا وادار کرده است. او ناگزیر با تصرفات خود می کوشد تا براساس گفتمان خود و مخاطبانش، و نه مولانا توجیه و توصیف جدیدی از اشعار ابداع کند. در تبیین این فرضیه به تحلیل ترجمه وی از نی نامه، داستان اصحاب کهف و نگاه او به اشعار مولانا درمورد عیسی (ع) و توصیف وی از سماع پرداخته ایم.

    کلیدواژگان: مولانا، کلمن بارکس، تحلیل گفتمان، دال مرکزی، لاکلا و موف
  • فاطمه سادات مدنی، سید علی اصغر میرباقری فرد*، سیده مریم روضاتیان صفحات 357-399

    تحلیل فرایند شکل گیری زبان عرفانی با توجه به سرچشمه اصلی آن یعنی قرآن، ساحت پژوهشی مهم و تازه ای است که به دلیل تنوع و وسعت متون عرفانی، پژوهش های بنیادین و خلاقانه ای را می طلبد که بتوانند در کشف ابعاد پنهان این زبان راهگشا باشند. بنابراین هدف این پژوهش ارایه یک الگوی پیشنهادی تازه برای تحلیل فرایند شکل گیری زبان عرفانی است که با عنوان رفتارشناسی واژه معرفی می گردد. رفتارشناسی واژه که به تحلیل تغییرات معنایی واژه های قرآنی در متون  تعلیمی عرفانی می پردازد، گامی در جهت تحلیل خلاقانه فرایند شکل گیری زبان عرفانی است. الگوی رفتارشناسی واژه، با بهره گیری از مزیت های نظریه میدانی1 کرت لوین2 در روان شناسی و نظریه ایزوتسو، شکل تازه ای از تحلیل زبان عرفانی را پدید می آورد. نظریه میدانی لوین به سبب توجه به تاثیرات محیطی بر رفتار3 و نظریه ایزوتسو به دلیل توجه به تاثیر مستقیم قرآن بر عرفان و تصوف اسلامی و مبحث معنی اساسی و معنی نسبی در این پژوهش کارآمد ند. دستاورد پژوهش آن است که رفتارشناسی واژه را به عنوان راهی تازه در جهت تحلیل زبان عرفانی ارایه می کند.

    کلیدواژگان: قرآن، زبان عرفانی، رفتارشناسی واژه، معنی نسبی، توبه
  • مریم شفقی*، مهدی محمدبیگی صفحات 391-424

    زبان شناسان روس کنش های گفتاری «تعریف و تمجید»، «تایید»، «ستایش» و «تملق و چاپلوسی» را در زیر گروه اصلی «کنش های گفتاری با ارزیابی مثبت گوینده از مخاطب» بررسی می کنند. در این کنش ها، نیروی بیانی و یا لفظی بیشتر در سطح معنایی واقع می شود تا واژگانی. مرز تشخیص این مفاهیم با توجه به مولفه هایی چون ویژگی های محیط کلامی، فاکتورهای فرازبانی چون صداقت و راستگویی، صمیمیت، نیازمندی و وابستگی یک سوی گفتگو به سوی دیگر و یا استقلال او از این نیاز، ویژگی های شخصیتی مخاطب دریافت کننده کنش های گفتاری دربردارنده ارزیابی مثبت و نیروی منظوری و تاثیری این کنش ها روشن می شود. در شکل گیری و تمیز این تعریف ها، تفاوت اندیشه و نگرش غرب و شرق نسبت به رفتار اجتماعی در واکنش به چنین کنش هایی بسیار مختلف است. در روسیه مبالغه بسیار به هنگام تعریف و تمجید را به تملق گویی تعبیر می کنند و آن را عملی ناپسند می شمارند. هر چند پاره ای از فرمول های تعریف و تمجید را می توان مشخص و طبقه بندی کرد، اما این طبقه بندی، تمامی صورت های کلامی تعریف و تمجید را به ویژه در فرهنگ کلامی ایرانی با تنوع بالایی که در گوناگونی موقعیت های تعریف و تمجید داراست، دربرنمی گیرد. در خصوص تملق، امکان ارایه طبقه بندی و فهرستی از صورت های بیانی در دو فرهنگ مورد بررسی ممکن نیست.

    کلیدواژگان: کنش گفتاری «تعریف و تمجید»، ارزیابی مثبت، تملق گویی، کنش بیانی، ادب و تعارف
  • مجتبی مقصودی*، علی اکبر خمیجانی فراهانی، مهری جلالی صفحات 425-458

    نتایج و یافته‏های تحقیقاتی که تاکنون درمورد یادگیری زبان سوم صورت گرفته حاکی از آن است که درمورد فواید و مضرات دوزبانگی هنگام یادگیری زبان سوم در بین محققان اتفاق نظر وجود ندارد. لذا مهم‏ترین هدف تحقیق حاضر، جست وجوی تفاوت‏های احتمالی بین دانش‏آموزان یک‏زبانه و دو‏زبانه در یادگیری علم نحو زبان انگلیسی به‏عنوان زبان جدید با درنظر گرفتن راهبرد یادگیری خودتنظیمی آن ها بوده ‏است. برای انجام این تحقیق، 411 شرکت کننده دختر و پسر در هشت دبیرستان دوره دوم در شهر اراک به روش نمونه‏‏گیری خوشه‏ای از میان دو گروه یک زبانه فارس زبان و دوزبانه فارس و ترک انتخاب شدند. از طریق آزمون دانش عمومی زبان، پرسش نامه خود‏تنظیمی و آزمون ساختار‏های نحوی و با کمک تحلیل‏های آماری ازجمله تحلیل واریانس یک‏طرفه، آزمون t مستقل و آمار توصیفی، مشخص شد که تفاوت معنی‏داری بین دانش‏آموزان یک‏زبانه و دو‏زبانه در فراگیری ساختار‏های نحوی زبان جدید وجود ندارد. هچنین یافته‏های این پژوهش نشان داد که بین راهبرد یادگیری خود‏تنظیمی و توانش زبانی دانش‏آموزان رابطه معنا‏داری وجود دارد. به این معنا که با بالارفتن استفاده فراگیران از راهبرد یادگیری خود‏تنظیمی، توانش زبانی آن ها نیز افزایش می‏یابد. مطابق با این یافته‏ها پیشنهاد شد که دبیران زبان انگلیسی مقطع متوسطه هرچه بیشتر با مهارت یادگیری خود‏تنظیمی و نحوه انتقال و آموزش آن آشنا شوند و بیشتر به مقوله یادگیری خود‏تنظیمی دانش‏آموزان در کلاس توجه کنند. علاوه بر آن لازم است که دوره‏های آموزشی ضمن‏خدمت برای دبیران زبان انگلیسی مناطق دو‏زبانه یا مناطقی که کلاس‏های آن تلفیقی از شاگردان یک‏زبانه و دوزبانه است برگزار شود تا درمورد چگونگی تدریس در این کلاس‏ها و نیز چگونگی تدریس راهبرد خودتنظیمی بحث و بازآموزی صورت پذیرد.

    کلیدواژگان: دو زبانگی، یک زبانگی، دانش نحوی، دانش عمومی زبانی، خود تنظیمی
  • سمیه صباح*، مژگان رشتچی صفحات 459-492

    این پژوهش به بررسی تغییر دیدگاه در روایت و نگارش انتقادی دانشجویان ایرانی دوره‏های انگلیسی برای اهداف دانشگاهی به‏زبان انگلیسی، به‏ عنوان زبان خارجی پرداخته ‏است. 60 نفر (30 زن و 30 مرد) از دانشجویان کارشناسی رشته روان شناسی دردسترس را انتخاب و به ‏‏طور تصادفی به ‏دو گروه آزمایشی «داستان اول‏ شخص» و «خلاصه داستان سوم ‏شخص» تقسیم کردیم. ابتدا، تفکر انتقادی مشارکت ‏کنندگان را با آزمون واتسون و گلیزر فرم الف (1980) ارزیابی کردیم. مقایسه نمرات پیش ‏آزمون ازطریق آزمون t مستقل نشان داد که بین تفکر انتقادی دو گروه، تفاوت معناداری نبود. سپس، داستان کوتاه «پروانه ها» (Grace, 1987) را به مشارکت ‏کنندگان دادیم. گروه داستان اول شخص با تغییر دیدگاه داستان، آن را از زاویه دید اول‏ شخص نوشتند، ولی مشارکت‏ کنندگان گروه خلاصه داستان سوم ‏شخص، همان داستان را از دیدگاه سوم‏شخص نگاشتند. از طبقه ‏بندی انواع نوشتار انتقادی هاتن و اسمیت (1995) برای تحلیل محتوایی 60 روایت به ‏دست ‏آمده از گروه ‏ها استفاده کردیم. براساس نتایج آزمونu  Mann-Whitney، تفاوت معناداری بین طول و تعداد جمله ‏واره ‏های نوشتار توصیفی و تامل دوگفتاره در داستانهای اول‏شخص نسبت به تعداد نظایرشان در داستان‏های سوم‏شخص وجود داشت، اما تفاوت معناداری بین تعداد جمله ‏واره ‏های تامل توصیفی و تامل انتقادی نبود. منطق گفت و گویی داستان‏ها به‏ترتیب از بیشترین به کم ترین عبارت بود از نوشتار توصیفی، تامل توصیفی، تامل دوگفتاره و تامل انتقادی. بررسی کیفی داستان‏ها، چندصدایی آن‏ها را نشان داد. درنتیجه، روش تحلیل محتوایی داده ‏ها ثابت کرد که تغییر دیدگاه بر ابراز دیدگاه‏های مشارکت‏ کنندگان، تامل در توصیف و دوگفتارگی نوشته‏ هایشان افزود که درراستای هدف این پژوهش یعنی تقویت نگارش انتقادی در دوره ‏های زبان انگلیسی برای اهداف دانشگاهی است.

    کلیدواژگان: تفکر انتقادی، داستان اول شخص، داستان سوم شخص، دیدگاه، زبان انگلیسی برای اهداف دانشگاهی
  • مهناز کربلایی صادق*، مهسا ربیع پور صفحات 493-523

    استعاره مفهومی از مباحث مهم در زبان شناسی شناختی است. در این رویکرد، اعتقاد بر این است که استعاره پدیده ای شناختی است و آنچه در زبان ظاهر می شود تنها نمود این پدیده شناختی است. در پژوهش حاضر، سعی بر آن است که از میان مفاهیم بنیادین احساس (غم، شادی، ترس، خشم، عشق و شرم)، احساسات شادی و ترس با استفاده از روش کتابخآن های و مطالعه موردی هشت رمان نوجوان از دو نویسنده ایرانی (یک زن و یک مرد) و دو نویسنده اسپانیایی (یک زن و یک مرد)   دو اثر از هر نویسنده موردتحلیل قرار گیرند و همچنین به مقایسه استعاره های مفهومی حوزه های مقصد شادی و ترس در ادبیات نوجوان در زبآن های فارسی و اسپانیایی پرداخته شود. برای این منظور، استعاره های مفهومی شادی و ترس از هشت رمان منتخب استخراج شد و نام نگاشت و همچنین حوزه مبدا آن ها مشخص شد. در مرحله بعد این نام نگاشت ها با هم مقایسه شدند و نقاط اشتراک و اختلاف آن ها مشخص شدند. در این رابطه بعضی از مفاهیم حوزه های مبدا مانند رنگ، تاثیرات فیزیولوژیکی و رفتاری، نور و تاریکی با جزییات شرح داده شد و با تحلیل داده های به دست آمده، تاثیر جنسیت نویسنده و همچنین فرهنگ جامعه ای که در آن رشد یافته است در کمیت و کیفیت استفاده از استعاره های شادی و ترس بررسی شد.

    کلیدواژگان: زبان شناسی شناختی، استعاره مفهومی، استعاره شادی، استعاره ترس، حوزه مبدا
  • رامین مرزی، محمدرضا احمدخانی*، عالیه کرد زعفرانلو کامبوزیا صفحات 525-555

    شناخت اینکه افراد چگونه باب گفت وگو را باز می کنند یا چگونه همدیگر را خطاب می کنند موضوعی مهم در مطالعات جوامع به‏منظور ایجاد روابط اجتماعی بین افراد است. این پژوهش به‏منظور بررسی پدیده اجتماعی عبارت‏های خطاب با سه هدف شناخت انواع، کارکرد و عوامل اجتماعی به وجود آورنده آن‏ها در گونه گفتاری ترکی آذری خوی است. روش تحقیق تحلیل محتواست و داده‏ها که به طور میدانی و با ابزار پرسش نامه از 225 گویشور خویی صورت گرفته است نشان می‏دهد که هشت نوع عبارت خطاب در مکالمات روزمره این افراد استفاده می‏شود: اسامی کوچک، نام خانوادگی، عناوین (القاب)، عبارت‏های خویشاوندی، اسامی تحبیب، اسامی مذهبی، اسامی حرفه‏ای و عبارت معکوس. تحلیل داده‏ها نشان می دهد که در این زبان عبارات خطاب در شرایط و موقعیت‏های گوناگون به ترتیب از بیشترین به کم ترین نشان دهنده نقش های صمیمیت، فاصله قدرت و احترام هستند که بیانگر میزبان بالای نقش صمیمیت در میان این گویشوران در استفاده از ابزار گفتاری خطاب است. همچنین بررسی داده‏ها بیان می‏کند که به  ترتیب عوامل سن، رابطه خانوادگی، مرتبه اجتماعی، سلسله مراتب شغلی و تحصیلات بر انتخاب عبارات خطاب تاثیر دارند که نشان می‏دهد در فرهنگ این جامعه زبانی سنتی عامل سن و رابطه خانوادگی بیشتر از موارد دیگر در تعیین فاصله اجتماعی، فرهنگی و طبقاتی دخیل هستند. همچنین برطبق  تحلیل‏ داده‏ها اسم کوچک،  بیشترین کاربرد را در بین مردم خوی در حالت آشنایی با مخاطب دارد. اسامی مذهبی نیز بیشترین کاربرد را در بین افراد غریبه دارد که این حاکی از اهمیت و رواج فراون باورهای مذهبی در بین مردم خوی است. به طور کلی ویژگی متمایز این پژوهش نسبت به دیگر تحقیقات این است که علاوه بر بررسی عبارات خطاب عوامل اجتماعی و نقشی موثر بر انتخاب آن ها نیز تحلیل شده اند.

    کلیدواژگان: خطاب، ترکی آذری
  • زهرا بادامدری*، علی علیزاده، الناز اقبالی، طاهره وحیدی فردوسی صفحات 597-628

    در سال های اخیر به رویکرد معنی شناسی شناختی در یادگیری زبان دوم/ خارجی توجه شده، با وجود این تحقیقات تجربی کمی با استفاده از این رویکرد، در زمینه یادگیری زبان صورت گرفته است. هدف از پژوهش حاضر، مقایسه تاثیر رویکرد شناختی نسبت به روش سنتی بر یادگیری برخی از مفاهیم پربسامد حرف اضافه «به» در زبان فارسی است. ابتدا، معانی مختلف حرف اضافه «به» از فرهنگ سخن انوری (1381) استخراج و سپس جمله ها و عبارت های حاوی این حرف اضافه با توجه به کتاب فارسی بیاموزیم (1388)، در سطح میانی بررسی شد. در این پژوهش که از نوع آزمایشی است، تعداد 50 نفر از غیر‏فارسی‏ زبانان بزرگ‏سال (زن) با سطح زبانی متوسط در مرکز آموزش زبان فارسی جامعه المصطفی مشهد با استفاده از آزمون تعیین سطح انتخاب شدند. این گروه نمونه به‏صورت تصادفی به دو گروه آزمایش و کنترل تقسیم شدند و با دستیابی به هدف پژوهش، روش آزمایشی با طرح پیش آزمون و پس آزمون اتخاذ شد. با استفاده از نرم افزار اس. پی. اس. اس.، مقایسه میانگین نمره های پیش آزمون دو گروه آزمایش و کنترل نشان داد بین دانش قبلی فارسی‏‏آموزان دو گروه، قبل از شروع فرایند آزمایش، تفاوت معناداری وجود ندارد؛ در صورتی که مقایسه میانگین نمره های پس آزمون مبین آن است که بین گروه آزمایش و کنترل از نظر آماری تفاوت معناداری وجود دارد. نتایج پژوهش بیانگر آن است که عملکرد فارسی‏ آموزانی که به روش شناختی آموزش داده شدند، در مقایسه با آنان که به روش سنتی آموزش دیدند، تفاوت معناداری وجود دارد و گروه آزمایش پیشرفت قابل ملاحظه ای در یادگیری مفاهیم حرف اضافه «به» از خود نشان دادند.

    کلیدواژگان: معنی شناسی شناختی، طرح واره تصویری، آموزش، یادگیری زبان، حرف اضافه «به»
  • فریبا حسینی تشنیزی، مهین ناز میر دهقان*، نازنین امیرارجمندی، علی کریمی فیروزجایی صفحات 629-669

    با توجه به ضرورت در انتخاب راهبردها و شیوه های کارآمد جهت طراحی های آموزشی برای کودکان فارسی زبان در یادگیری زبان انگلیسی، در پژوهش کاربردی نظری حاضر، نظریه دستور شناختی لنگاکر به عنوان یک روش خلاق در آموزش زبان انگلیسی مورداستفاده قرار گرفت. هدف از تحقیق حاضر کاربرد خلاق دستور شناختی در آموزش است که سبب ساده سازی، یادگیری بهتر و توانمندی زبانی می شود که برای رسیدن به آن پرسش های زیر موردتوجه قرار گرفته است: 1. بعد از گذراندن «دوره خلاق شیوه یادگیری توصیف کردن واژه در جمله»، افزایش تعداد واژگانی که با استفاده از ویژگی «مشخص بودگی» در بافت متنی معنادار توسط گروه های کنترل و آزمایش به کاربرده شدند، به چه میزان می شود؟ 2. چگونه می توان از ویژگی «ترکیب های هم نشینی» جهت آسان سازی آموزش ساخت «واحدهای پیچیده زبانی» درجمله ها استفاده کرد؟ در این راستا، بعد از آموزش خلاق به شیوه شناختی از بین 160 نفر، متن 46 نفر از فارسی زبانان به کمک نرم افزار اس. پی. اس. اس.[1] توصیف کیفی و کمی شدند. درنتیجه با کاربرد دوره های خلاق دستور شناختی لنگاکر، زبان آموزان توانستند با روش صحیح ترکیب و هم نشینی واژگان، به ساخت جملات خوش ساخت زبانی اقدام کنند. گروه آزمایش بعد از گذراندن دوره خلاق شیوه یادگیری توصیف کردن واژه در جمله، توانست از تعداد کل واژگان کتاب درسی 98 درصد واژگان را گسترش دهد و در متون خود بگنجاند. گروه کنترل نیز بدون گذراندن دوره خلاق توانست 44 درصد از کل واژگان را در متون خود به روش صحیح ترکیب و هم نشین کند. از نمودارهای شبه شناختی نیز جهت آسان سازی آموزش استفاده شد.

    کلیدواژگان: کاربرد خلاق دستور شناختی لنگاکر، مشخص بودگی، یادگیری خلاق، ترکیب های هم نشینی، توانمندی زبانی
  • بهزاد پورقریب* صفحات 671-700

    هرچند بررسی مفهوم مدلول استعلایی از دل مطالعات فلسفی برمی‏خیزد، اما زبان‏ شناسی و ادبیات نیز از ظرفیت‏های این مفهوم بهره‏ برده‏اند. جستار حاضر با بررسی رویکرد زبان‏شناختی والتر بنیامین به موضوع زبان شناختی مدلول استعلایی در رمان قصر کافکا می‏پردازد. این رمان به دلیل قابلیت بالایی که برای بررسی و یافتن زنجیره‏ای از مدلول‏های استعلایی در مولفه‏ های اصلی‏اش داراست، انتخاب شده است. مارتین هایدگر و به ویژه پس از او ژاک دریدا تلاش کردند برای نقد سنت تفکر متافیزیک مفهوم  مدلول استعلایی را به کار ببندند. اما هدف این پژوهش بر آن است تا با روش تحلیل محتوا به این موضوع بپردازد که چگونه بدون به کار گرفتن مشخص اصطلاح مدلول استعلایی، چنین رویکردی در اندیشه ‏های والتر بنیامین و نظریه مشهور او در باب سه سطح از زبان حضور دارد .در سطح سوم زبان که بنیامین از آن با عنوان «عرصه یاوه‏ گویی» یاد می‏کند، همان سطح تولید معنا و در عین حال ناممکن بودن آن است. این گزاره بنیامین که مترادف با نفی حضور مدلول استعلایی در اندیشه دریداست، در قصر کافکا کاربرد عملی یافته است. درنهایت مقاله به این نتیجه می رسد که رابطه صراحت و ابهام در سه مولفه‏ های اصلی داستان یعنی شخصیت «ک»، «قصر» و همچنین شغل «مساحت‏گری» ناممکن بودن مدلول استعلایی و سطح سوم زبانی بنیامین را به شکل یک روایت داستانی نشان می‏دهد.

    کلیدواژگان: زبان شناختی، مدلول استعلایی، ژاک دریدا، والتر بنیامین، قصر کافکا
  • مرتضی تقوی، محمدرضا هاشمی* صفحات 701-746

    یکی از مسایل مهم در حوزه مطالعات توصیفی ترجمه مفهوم جهانی‌های ترجمه است که موضوع آن یافتن ویژگی‌های خاص و بارز زبان ترجمه‌ای به‌مثابه زبانی متفاوت از زبان مبدا و مقصد است. پرسشی که در اینجا مطرح می‌شود این است که با توجه به تفاوت‌های بین زبان‌ها آیا ویژگی‌های جهانی ادعایی (که عمدتا حاصل بررسی بر روی زبان‌های اروپایی هستند) در زبان‌های غیراروپایی نیز وجود دارند یا خیر. مطالعه حاضر با استفاده از تقسیم‌بندی چسترمن (2004) از جهانی‌ها به دو نوع «جهانی‌های مبدا» و «جهانی‌های مقصد»، دسته دوم را موردواکاوی قرار می‌دهد. این پژوهش، با استفاده از یک پیکره مقایسه‌ای برساخته از متون توضیحی فارسی تالیفی و ترجمه‌ای، دو جهانی «ساده‌سازی» و «تصریح» را موردبررسی قرار می‌دهد. نتایج این مطالعه، در پرتو یافته‌های مربوط به ویژگی‌های فارسی ترجمه‌ای، وجود ویژگی‌های جهانی ادعایی در فارسی ترجمه‌ای را به‌چالش می‌کشد و نشان می‌دهد که هیچ‌کدام از ویژگی‌های مستخرج از پیکره مقایسه‌ای زبان فارسی با نظریات پیشین مطرح‌شده همخوانی ندارند.

    کلیدواژگان: جهانی ترجمه، پیکره مقایسه ای، فارسی ترجمه ای، جهانی های زبان مقصد
  • سید مهدی ساداتی نوش آبادی*، مهدی سبزواری، نرجس بانو صبوری، مزدک انوشه صفحات 747-783

    در این مقاله ساختار بند موصولی مفعولی در زبان فارسی و امکان ادغام متقارن یک گروه اسمی بین بند پایه و پیرو براساس مفهوم ادغام متقارن چیتکو (2011b) و ریمزدیجک (2006a) در زبان فارسی بررسی شد. بند موصولی مفعولی نوعی بند پیرو است که هسته آن در بند پایه و بند پیرو دارای نقش نحوی مفعول است. برای این منظور ابتدا مفهوم ادغام متقارن، ساختار بند موصولی مفعولی و ویژگی‌های آن براساس مفهوم ادغام متقارن و همچنین تقسیم‌بندی بند موصولی مفعولی به دو گروه دارای هسته و آزاد براساس چیتکو (2011b) توضیح داده شدند. داده‏های زبانی مختلف از زبان فارسی برای تحلیل کاربست مفاهیم مطرح‌شده توسط چیتکو (2011b) که شامل بندهای موصولی مختلف بودند، استفاده شدند. بررسی داده‏های زبانی نشان داد که تقسیم‌بندی بندهای موصولی مفعولی در زبان فارسی به دو گروه بند موصولی دارای هسته و آزاد براساس چیتکو (2011b) به‌طور کامل منطبق بر حقایق زبان فارسی نیست، زیرا در بندهای موصولی مفعولی آزاد معیار در زبان فارسی، سازه مشترک بین بند پایه و پیرو نمی‌تواند یک پرسش‌واژه باشد، زیرا در این شرایط جمله دارای خوانش سوالی خواهد شد که این موضوع برخلاف یافته‏های چیتکو (ibid) است. دیگر نتایج این پژوهش نشان دادند که ویژگی‌های بند موصولی مفعولی در زبان فارسی مانند یکسان بودن نظام حالت، نقش دستوری و نقش معنایی گروه اسمی مشترک بین بند پایه و پیرو، حاکی از اشتراک این سازه بین بندهای پایه و پیرو و همچنین اشراف چندگانه دو فعل واژگانی بر آن است.

    کلیدواژگان: بند موصولی مفعولی، ادغام متقارن، اشراف چندگانه، تطابق چندگانه
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  • Reza Pishghadam*, Shima Ebrahimi Pages 1-27

    Of the effective ways to have successful interactions, the proper use of words could be mentioned. The vocabulary items chosen by the speaker can act as conversation starters. Consciously chosen vocabulary items that are attractive and functional enough could make a profound impact on the audience. The success of the speaker's utterance is effectively ensured by a web of vocabulary items that may have been carefully picked up in accordance with the theme of the discussion and the audience's taste. The present study, therefore, sets forth the concept of "language decoration" as an interdisciplinary approach in establishing effective communications. Language decoration means ornamenting the content and form of the utterance so as to affect the audience significantly. In fact, language decoration can reveal individuals' identity and personality and is firmly rooted within their linguistic competence. In view of the importance of thinking, emotion, sense, and culture in conversations and considering the fact that "postlocution" moves beyond communicative competence, the current study endeavors to put forward literary ornaments, psychological ornaments, cultural ornaments, sensory ornaments at the forefront of language decoration. Moreover, it advances this view that through cogbination (cognition+combination), emobination (emotion+combination), culbination (culture+combination), and sensbination (sense+combination), people could decorate their utterances and consequently, improve their communicative performance.

    Introduction

    Language is a tool for effective communication between members of a community in which the ways it is used matter much. That implies that people use language to express their opinions, thoughts, and feelings. Indeed, they describe their relationship through language. From this point of view, language serves as a tool for giving people an identity, and how language is used in conversations is of significance for achieving goals and intentions.
    This should be noted that in addition to exchanging information in conversations, attention should also be paid to the audience's understanding and selection of appropriate elements for a talk, and merely transferring information to the audience without considering the effect of lexical items on them may lead to poor communication. Broadly speaking, listeners tend to follow a conversation that is interesting, valuable, and useful and is presented with a simple and understandable language. Therefore, the type of lexical items used by a speaker and the extent of his efforts to attract the audience's attention are essential factors in any conversation. It is undeniable that for delivering an effective speech, people should plan and organize their content and gain the necessary experience and skills to convey it to others. If an individual wishes to have an effective conversation, he must know how to embellish his words to yield a positive effect on the audience and their emotions. Given that each individual has a degree of feelings and the emotional load of words varies from person to person, how to use lexical items in conversation is of paramount importance. Therefore, we can improve the quality of our daily interactions and communication through embellishing the speech and applying its principles. Accordingly, language, like environmental objects, can be decorated and presented to the audience in a more beautiful way. Therefore, paying attention to such elements as emotions, senses, and culture matters in communicating with others.
    In view of the importance of this issue, the authors of the present inquiry attempt to explore an approach that goes beyond communicative competence. This novel approach not only transmits the message but also takes into account the audience's emotional and cognitive aspects in any communication. Therefore, after examining the concepts related to communicative competence, the theoretical framework is introduced, and based on that, the concept of language decoration is proposed, and relevant solutions are presented.

    Literature Review

    The main function of language is "communication", which is the reason why language theories such as "communicative competence" proposed by Hymes (1972) have well-addressed this issue. For Hymes (1972), communicative competence refers to the knowledge that a person can rely on to have effective and efficient communication with others and to determine whether a sentence is appropriate in certain situations or not. Canale and Swain (1980) considered communicative competence to consist of four dimensions, which should be taken into consideration for building a successful relationship with others.
    A. Grammatical competence: knowing the lexical capacity and grammar (mastering words and grammar) and determining grammatically-correct sentences.
    B. Discourse competence: knowing how to relate sentences to each other in terms of form and meaning (coherence) and achieving verbal cohesion.
    C. Sociolinguistic competence: obtaining necessary information on how to choose words based on the audience type and socio-cultural context.
    D. Strategic competence: using linguistic and non-linguistic strategies necessary to start, end, continue, repair and change the direction of communication.
    Pishghadam et al. (2019) are of the view that in addition to the above-mentioned types of competence, another dimension called emo-sensory competence is also important for establishing effective communication. This is because people should pay attention to the audience emotionally to communicate more effectively. Accordingly, the smaller the emotional distance between the speaker and the audience, the more common understanding of the subject is formed, and consequently, the greater the rate of learning and understanding. Given that the theory of communicative competence only focuses on communicating and achieving personal desires and goals in conversation, Pishghadam and Ebrahimi (2020) introduced "linguo-therapeutic competence" (language for a better life) to complement the above-mentioned types of competence on effective communication. In this type of competence, language is seen as a tool for behavioral change, growth and a tool for improving another person's well-being. It is clear that if the speaker creates a balance between these language roles in their communication, pays more attention to the mentioned types of competence, and be more aware of them, they can build a more successful relationship with the audience. Besides this competence, speakers should also pay attention to speech acts in an effective conversation. Austin (1975) introduced the speech act theory and believes that the speaker does the actions through uttering sentences. Each sentence consists of the locutionary act (i.e., the literal meaning), the illocutionary act (i.e., the speaker's intention for communication), and the perlocutionary act (i.e., the effect of a sentence on the audience). These acts make people pursue a specific goal through uttering a sentence even though this goal may or may not be achieved.Pishghadam and Ebrahimi (2020) also introduced the concept of "postlocution" and maintained that utterances may have a long-term effect on the audience. At times, utterances can have a long-term effect on people; therefore, individuals should consider the "postlocution" of their words in a successful conversation. This should be noted that in communicative competence, the speaker tends to achieve his own personal goals and intentions through language. Therefore, any use of language is self-oriented. The concept of "postlocution" is, however, other-oriented language wherein the individual pays attention to not only themselves but also others, and in fact, they attempt to make others feel good. Therefore, they are of the view although achieving the goal is important for effective and successful communication, boosting the audience's mood also matters.

    Methodology

    In the present study, the concept of language decoration is proposed as an interdisciplinary approach in building effective communications. Language decoration means embellishing lexical items in terms of content and meaning to have a greater impact on the audience during the conversation. As a matter of fact, language decoration manifests the identity and personality of people with a high level of verbal intelligence, and by highlighting the main functions of language, it makes speech more attractive. Given the importance of emotions, feelings, and culture in effective communications and considering the concept of "postlocution", which goes beyond communicative competence, the authors of the present work have proposed literary, psychological, cultural, and sensory decoration strategies. They are of the view that individuals can decorate their talk and speech through such techniques as cogbination (cognition+combination), emobination (emotion+combination), culbination (culture+combination), and sensbination (sense+combination), and consequently, improve the quality of their daily interactions and communications.

    Results

    Given the fact that the most important part of any communication is how to convey information, learning the main principles and skills of effective communication is of importance in building a strong relationship. Therefore, the art of having effective communication is a key factor in measuring individuals' success. That is why the ability to speak well and decorate the talk play important roles in making conversations more interesting and creating effective relationships. Given that such components as attitudes, cultures, emotions, and senses affect the quality of communication, they can also serve as linguistic ornaments.
    Language decoration skills can be learned, and individuals can enhance these skills by learning related techniques. Employing interdisciplinary knowledge and putting together areas of sociology, psychology, linguistics, anthropology, etc., can help individuals communicate effectively through language decoration. In the present study, language decoration included literary, psychological, cultural, and sensory ornaments. It should be noted that for individuals to be successful in language decoration, they should use cogbination (using thoughtful quotes by famous people like Saadi and Descartes), emobination (using stimulating words), culbination (paying attention to traditional and modern cultural expressions), and sensbination (engaging audience visually and auditorily, etc.).
    Overall, this can be concluded that for having effective communication, all people, regardless of their profession, need to know the techniques of giving a good speech mastering the art of language decoration. Mastery over language decoration techniques and oratory skills can help people communicate more effectively with their audience and successfully persuade and influence them.In other words, if people harness and use techniques of language decoration, the audience will be more receptive to their talk and will listen with more interest. Therefore, the speaker is successful in any communication, and their message—which is accompanied by attractiveness and proper applications—is easily conveyed to the audience without evoking any negative emotions in them, which is the overall goal of language decoration.

    Keywords: Language decoration, Postlocution, Cogbination, Emobination, Culbination, Sensbination
  • Razieh Sadeghpour, Parivash Safa, Mahmoud Reza Gashmardi* Pages 29-64

    Many of the existing problems of teachers arise from the lack of a written supervision program, and the implementation of educational supervision in principle can not only be effective in solving the problems of teachers, but also increase their motivation. Therefore, having an educational observation model can be effective in optimizing the performance of educational consultants. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the educational supervision model in French language classes in Iran using the situated action theory. This study was performed by quasi-experimental pretest-posttest single-group method.The statistical population included all educational consultants, 7 of whom were selected by convenience sampling. The dependent variable (monitoring quality) was measured before and after the implementation of the independent variable (monitoring optimization model). Comparing the mean score of supervision quality in the group of counselors before and after the educational intervention and according to the results of the study, the mean score and standard deviation before the intervention (19.07 11 111.42) and after the intervention (22.13 15 155.85) was obtained Based on the paired t-test, according to the level of significance obtained, a statistically significant difference was observed between the mean scores before and after the intervention. Therefore, training of educational consultants based on the proposed supervisory model was effective at a significant level (p <0.05). According to the research findings, it can be concluded that, by using the designed model of educational supervision, educational consultants can be trained with effective quality of performance, because the principles of educational supervision can be learned and this in turn   leads to success in the teaching-learning process.

    Introduction 

    Educational supervision has an essential role in the quality of teaching and optimizing the performance of teachers. Many of the problems that teachers face are due to the lack of a written supervision program. The task of educational counselors is to train and accompany teachers in acquiring the skills they need in teaching and coping with different classroom situations. Training counselors seldom engage in in-depth thinking and provide feedback and solutions that are primarily prescriptive. In addition, the beginner teacher-counselor relationship is associated with a kind of dishonesty during post-supervision interviews, and educational counselors resort to covert methods to avoid tension with teachers and to improve the relationship. Due to the lack of quality training courses, training consultants are more inclined to supervise as they teach. For this reason, the lack of expertise has made the practice of educational counseling a simple and aimless oversight. Implementing educational supervision in a principled way can not only be effective in solving teachers' problems, but also increase their motivation. In Iran, educational counselors generally work as educational counselors in educational centers without having to participate in a special training course, and this lack of expertise causes problems such as low productivity, pessimism, frustration and teachers’ lack of motivation. Because not every good teacher necessarily becomes a good educational consultant (Sadidi et al., 1398). The application of some educational monitoring models based on observation method can examine in-depth practical dimensions and observable actions such as gesture, movement in space, etc., and on the other hand investigates the living dimensions of action, perceptions, feelings, concerns and Pay attention to the action; It can help to optimize the quality of the educational consultants' supervisory performance. The "situated action theory" is based on two factors; observation method "within the living organization" and interview, simulation and relative experience techniques.  For these two reasons, the efficiency of the educational supervision is to be materialized through these two ways: Encouraging the teacher to reconsider his or her action in the classroom and interpreting his or her action. This theory seeks to return the actor to the situation. Here the actor is asked to explain his action. This clarification is done via his cognitive and social re-visualization with the aid of the characteristics of the situation. This theory seeks to return the actor to the situation in which the action was performed and to re-visualize him socially and cognitively, using the characteristics of the situation, to lead the actor to explain his action. This theory studies the cognitive dimensions of human activities, because we are dealing with role-makers who are in the role of teachers, educational supervisors, language learners, etc., for whom the skill of adaptation, which is specific to any living thing, is of special importance. Therefore, in the case of teachers and educational supervisors who are the actors of this study, it is necessary to study their human activities and their experience in interacting with the environment and the meaning of their actions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the model of educational supervision of French classrooms in Iranian language schools, using the theory of situational action. Research Question(s) This study seeks to answer this question:  Is the model of educational supervision effective on the quality of supervision of counselors in French language classes in Iranian schools?

    Literature Review

    No research has been done on the background of the research in the general study, at the school level and in the field of French language, on issues related to the status of supervision and supervisory models in Iran, and this article is the first research in this regard.   However, in the field of English in the same field, at the level of education and high school, academic research, dissertations and articles have been presented and published. Numerous articles and researches in this field have been presented in foreign countries, some examples of which are mentioned below. Bullunz et al. (2014) implemented a clinical supervision model to train Turkish teachers in their research and evaluated its effectiveness. They used experimental and control groups to compare the performance of teacher trainee training and used t-test and analysis of variance to compare scores. The results showed significantly higher scores in the experimental group compared to the control group, however, the results of repeated measures analysis (ANOVA) did not show a significant difference in increasing scores for both groups, which was probably due to the limited time to implement the clinical monitoring model. In another study, Rashidi and Forutan (2015) in examining the status of monitoring the performance of English language teachers in the Iranian education system, stated;  Most English language teachers rated their supervisors' professional skills as effective in areas such as assessment, classroom management, educational activities, student behavior, and teaching techniques and these teachers wanted more support from educational supervisors in the areas of preparing and editing educational materials, developing teachers' experience, and teaching guidance. The supervisory model applied in high school is traditional models, especially the prescriptive model, and the supervisory model of supervisors in university teacher training centers is followed by a model of self-thinking or thinking. The vast majority of regulatory model volunteers prefer self-reflection to traditional models, and educational supervisors consider themselves skilled and specialized in most areas. Sobhaninejad and Aghahsseini (2006) found in their research that there is a significant difference between the current monitoring situation and the desired and optimal situation. The results of Hismanoglu (2010) research show that, the most important part of monitoring education is motivating and encouraging teachers to overcome their weaknesses. After examining the current situation, his research had two main conclusions 1: there is a clear difference between teachers 'beliefs about educational supervision and their experiences, and 2: there is a significant difference between teachers' expectations of supervision and the perception of educational supervisors. Sadeghi et al. (2015) have shown that the current state of educational supervision is almost acceptable, but teachers expect to receive more qualified services in supervision and they need more support in the field of educational supervision and counseling. When teachers associate the supervision of educational supervisors with evaluation, they become distrustful (Bushama et al., 2016). Jecker-Parvex (2020) in his research examined the role of educational counselor and defined educational supervision as an educational and practical method that aims to develop teacher skills, acquire self-assessment skills and analyze interaction situations, challenges such as interventions and Professional issues, especially in terms of responsibilities, contradictions and problems, effects and emotions, and obstacles and performance of their profession. According to the researches mentioned in the previous articles, various studies have been conducted in the field of education in the field of supervision models, and there are still no results that indicate the use of a comprehensive model that includes all aspects and the present study is one of the first studies to investigate the effectiveness of a supervisory model in French classrooms in Iranian language schools using the theory of situational action.

    Methodology   

     This study was performed by quasi-experimental method of pre-test-post-group test. The statistical population included all educational consultants and 7 of them were selected by convenience sampling. The dependent variable (monitoring quality) was measured before and after the implementation of the independent variable (monitoring optimization model). In this research, the educational supervision model of French language classes, which is designed by Sadeghpour (2020) based on the theory of position-based action with a mixed quantitative-qualitative exploratory approach; was used. To determine the effectiveness of Sadeghpour (2020) educational supervision model, an educational plan was designed and the quasi-experimental research design method was used. The dependent variable (monitoring quality) was measured before and after the implementation of the independent variable (monitoring optimization model) and based on the educational supervision model, a 42-item researcher-made educational supervision checklist was designed to determine the effectiveness of using the optimized educational supervision model, which included items with 5-point Likert scale (very low, low, medium, high, very high) and sought to answer the question of whether the model of educational supervision of French classrooms in Iranian schools using the theory of position-based, on the quality of supervision of counselors , Is it effective? To perform the pre-test, to view and complete the checklist, the performance of each educational counselor before the training course was filmed and reviewed and the monitoring table was completed by the researcher. Then, the educational intervention was carried out by forming a "group workshop" and "individual accompaniment" and to run the post-test again, including the previously mentioned steps; (Monitoring, filming, etc.) was done and the checklist of the monitoring table was completed again and finally the results were compared with each other. 4. Results Comparing the mean score of quality of supervision in the group of counselors, before and after the educational intervention, the mean score and standard deviation were obtained before the intervention (19.07 ± 111.42) and after the intervention (22.13 ± 155.85) and based on the paired t-test, according to the obtained level of significance, a statistically significant difference was observed between the mean scores before and after the intervention. Therefore, training of educational consultants based on the proposed supervisory model was effective at a significant level (p <0.05). Table 1, shows the mean and standard deviation of pre-test and post-test scores, and Table 2, shows the significance of the mean of pre-test and post-test scores. Table 1 Paired t-test: Mean and standard deviation of pre-test and post-test scores Mean N Std. Deviation Mean  Deviation Pre-test 111.4286 7 19.07754 7.21063 Post-test 155.8571 7 22.13165 8.36497 Table 2  Significance of mean pre-test and post-test scores Couple comparison T Df Sig Mean Std. Deviation Pre-test Post-test -44.42857 11.2673 -10.433 6 000.0 5. Discussion The results of the study showed that the model of educational supervision of French classrooms in Iranian schools is effective on the quality of supervision of counselors by using the theory of position-based action and there was a significant difference between the means before and after the training. This means that the proposed training course has been useful in optimizing the educational supervision situation, and the current shortcomings of the educational supervision situation can be partially eliminated. Thus, effective teaching supervision and counseling leads to the development of innovation, positive motivation and initiative in teachers. The training counselor should be able to know the knowledge and skills, attitudes, needs, expectations of the instructor and also be aware of the expectations of the training center and the effectiveness of the instructor. The training course should also be an opportunity for training counselors to develop their counseling and leadership skills; to be able to act more effectively during class situations and during post-visit interviews. The training course should also be an opportunity for training counselors to develop their counseling and leadership skills; to be able to act more effectively during class situations and during post-visit interviews. They need to understand the needs of educators and, through practical and theoretical integration, guide them to find solutions to their problems (Chaliès et al., 2009, p. 106). If the educational supervision is done properly, it will lead to the quality of the teacher's performance and ultimately improve the quality of the educational situation. Therefore, it is necessary for educational institutions to emphasize this type of supervision and use and teach effective and appropriate models of educational supervision to educational consultants.

    Conclusion 

    According to the research findings, it can be concluded that, by using the designed model of educational supervision, we can train educational consultants with effective quality of performance. Because the principles of educational supervision can be learned, and this, in turn, leads to success in the teaching-learning process. In this study, in terms of typology, to optimize the quality of supervision of educational consultants in Iran, the model obtained from a mixed quantitative-qualitative exploratory study by Sadeghpour in 2020 was used, Considering the effectiveness of this model, doing more research by combining related models can lead to more comprehensive regulatory models in this regard. Acknowledgments I would like to thank all those who helped me in this research. Appendix Checklist (monitoring table) very much Much medium little very little Items Main categories Row During the class visit, the educational counselor pays attention to the teacher's gesture (positioning, movement, tone of voice and speed of speech and movements in the classroom environment). Behavior An educational counselor is available to address teacher problems, except during classroom supervision. The educational counselor is aware of his / her role of accompanying the teacher. The training consultant devotes sufficient time to supervision. Before observing the class, the educational counselor informs the teacher of his / her supervisory criteria and the objectives of the class supervision. When observing the class, the counselor uses appropriate tools such as an evaluation table or a camera to record the sessions. During the interview after the visit, the educational counselor fully describes the teacher's problems. Through observation sessions, the educational counselor controls the quality of the teaching-learning process and, in a way, evaluates what is observed in relation to the expected situation. The educational counselor pays attention to the arrangement of the learners in the classroom situation, according to the educational goals of the teacher. During the observation, the educational counselor pays attention to classroom management, board management, space management, time management, and interactions between learners-learners and learners-teachers. It is important for the counselor that the teacher has an alternative lesson plan (Plan B). It is important for the counselor that the instructor, before starting the class, perform classroom rituals such as (attending class before class, chatting, attending, and asking for dates and days, talking about the weather…). The counselor cares about having the right interactions with the teacher. Ethics Takes care of the teacher in expressing and analyzing the teaching problems in a timely manner. Easily accepts other people's ideas. In supervision, the educational counselor always adheres to the principle of confidentiality and treats the teacher with respect, humility and patience. Based on his / her personal experiences in teaching and supervision, he / she makes suggestions to the teacher. Educational basics After visiting the classroom, she usually transfers her knowledge and experiences to the teacher and asks her to adapt those experiences to her/his class by thinking. After visiting the classroom, she/he encourages the teacher to think In order to improve the quality of teaching, the educational counselor provides teaching aids and tools to the teacher. Holds training courses to meet the needs of teachers. During the visit, he / she monitors the teacher's skill level (teaching method) and educational cognition (learners' learning style). Considers the use of learner assessment methods. The educational counselor reviews the assessments made by the teacher. Pays attention to the correct implementation of the educational regulations of the institute (class hours, number of absences, timely completion of educational content, etc). The educational counselor causes stress and anxiety to the teacher.. Psychological factors The educational consultant is involved in creating the teacher's creativity and innovation. The educational counselor helps and motivates the teacher. The training consultant plays the role of guide and team leader. Professional and organizational characteristics The training consultant is an active listener during monitoring and observation. The training counselor has sufficient expertise and skills to conduct class observations and post-visit sessions. The gender of the educational counselor affects the quality of classroom supervision. During the session, after visiting the teacher, she /he wants to explain the purpose of her actions. The meaning of action During the interview, after the visit, she/he encourages the teacher to express the strengths and weaknesses of her behavior. The educational counselor listens to the teacher's comments during the interview after the visit and then expresses his or her understanding in order to resolve the misunderstanding in front of him / her. Encourages the teacher to find the right answer to the thought and, by challenging the teacher, teaches her/him the way of thinking. The counselor acts independently in dealing with problems. Compatibility Guides the teacher to find the right answer. The consultant participates in training courses to update information and improve his / her performance in order to adapt to new needs In the face of unforeseen situations, it changes its behavior and takes a position appropriate to the new situation. The training counselor uses understandable words during the interview, not scientific and specialized words that make it difficult to understand. Verbal skills The educational counselor is skilled in expressing his / her thoughts to the teacher and expresses his / her thoughts clearly and fluently.

    Keywords: Consultant, Optimization, Situated action Theory, Training Course
  • Raja Abuali*, Zeinab Akbari Pages 65-97

    The role of language in the construction of identity is one of the most important modern theoretical debates about identity. Structuralism and poststructuralism emphasize with particular certainty the constructive role of language in the formation of identity. Assuming that language is a powerful tool in constructing identity discourse, the present study examines the two novels of the last girl and girl who escaped from the clutches of ISIS and shows by what linguistic mechanisms the Yazidi women use the genre of "autobiography" as a Strategies are used in the struggle against the discourse of domination, and by offering different counter-discourses, they construct the dominant discourses and global stereotypes in order to eliminate some of the consequences or negative feedback of the aggression and oppression of the Yazidi colonized society. . In this regard, we used Laclau and Moff discourse theory and its methodological tools to analyze research data. The results show that four discourses in conflict and conflict with each other have sought to represent the identity of the Yazidi woman: a) the discourse of the "Kurdish Nationalist Party"; B) the discourse of the "central government of Iraq and the Arabs"; C) the discourse of "ISIS" and d) the discourse of "Yazidi women writers". Yazidi women are struggling with all the identities that the dominant discourses have defined for them, such as slavery, rape, and refugee, and creating new identities for themselves as Yazidi leaders and advocates for the rights of women and Yazidis.

    Introduction

    The role of language in the construction of identity is one of the most important modern theoretical debates about identity. Poststructuralism emphasizes with particular certainty the constructive role of language in the construction of identity. By accepting this basic idea, Laclau and Moff's theory of discourse also emphasizes that "who" or "identity" is relative and inherent, and that identities should be understood as "subject situations" in a discourse construction that can never be established forever. Among the literary genres, "autobiography" is one of the most important types that has become very popular among "identity-based" movements and discourses in recent decades. Women, people of color, people with physical disabilities, people of different sexual orientations, and survivors of violence have all played a role in developing the process of self-representation by revealing their repressed histories and creating new perspectives in the genre. In the view of theorists of autobiographical literature, every autobiography is an exploration of an identity and the design of the subject of identity is one of the characteristics of female writing. The crisis-stricken community of Iraqi Yazidis is one of the communities whose women, after finding themselves defenseless against the crimes and genocides of ISIS forces and themselves raped and desecrated, turned to writing biographies and telling their personal stories of the crisis. ISIL created a movement that resulted in the emergence of numerous literary works that have been translated into various languages ​​around the world and have reached numerous editions. Although in general the identity-building components of the Yazidi community do not have the necessary uniformity and this has led to the fragmentation of the identity of the members of this community, ISIS's crimes against Yazidis have further weakened the Yazidi identity, especially the women of this community. Nevertheless, the publication of autobiographies of Yazidi women was very effective in restoring the identity and discourse of Yazidi women. Therefore, the main issue of the present study is that Yazidi women have used this genre and linguistic facilities to construct or deconstruct the social identity of Yazidi women.

    Research Question(s)

    In this regard, this study intends to answer the following questions by applying Laclau Moff's theory of discourse:1) In the autobiographies of Yazidi women, what are the main discourses in conflict with each other that seek to construct the discourse of Yazidi women?2) The identity of the Yazidi woman is elaborated around in which of the above-mentioned discourses?3) How did Yazidi women writers in their autobiographies represent Yazidi identity and by what discourse mechanisms did they construct the dominant discourses?The main hypothesis of the research in answer to these questions is that Yazidi women, by taking an active and proactive stance against ISIS crimes, try to construct all the identities that the dominant discourses have defined for them and achieve a new identity by using the linguistic possibilities of autobiographies.

     Literature Review

    2.1. Laclau and Mouffe's discourse theory: hegemony and the ontology of identity
    According to Laclau's discourse theory, "identity" is relative and intrinsic, and identities should be understood as "subject situations" in a discourse construct (Laclau & Mouffe, 2001, p. 115); That is, discourses always set situations for individuals to occupy them as subjects, thereby giving them meaning and identity. To understand precisely the "non-intrinsicity" of identity in discourse theory, it is best to begin by defining Saussure's concept of "sign" as the foundation of poststructuralist theory of language and how meaning is created. He knows the component of signifier (sound imagination) and signified (mental imagination) (Saussure, 2003, p. 96).

    2.2. Autobiography and discursive construction of identity
     Literary works resulting from life realities of the writer, called autobiography, refer to the works in which the writer depicts his/her own personal experiences; the narrative line and narrated events are directly taken from the writer’s personal life. In his book L'Autobiographie en France, Philippe Lejeune, the first theorist of first-person literature or autobiography, has been provided the most well-known definition of autobiography: A prose narrative of the past (retrospective) which a person presents of her/his own life and in which the major emphasis is on her/his personal life especially on her/his life story (or story of the character) (Lejeune, 1971: 14 as cited in Nassehi, 1391: 93). Yet “the study of autobiography explodes disciplinary boundaries and requires and understanding of other approaches, methods and practices” (Cosslett, Lury and Summerfield, 2000: 1). The popularity has led some to put emphasis on the autobiographical (sometimes referred to as the autobiographical turn) and consider it as an ever-present feature in writing (regardless of its type or genre) (Lang, 1982: 6). Let alone this broad understanding, it was in the late 18th-century that autobiography was first recognized as an independent literary genre. From the 1970s onwards, the genre owes its growth and increasing prosperity to various social and political movements across the globe which have led more and more people to write about and publish their expectations of life. Women, colored people, the physically disabled, LGBT and survivors of violence all have played a role in representing themselves through revealing their suppressed histories, hence bringing about new perspectives in the genre of autobiography. So in the recent decades, identity movements have played a significant role in the emergence and progress of this kind of writing with its different written products. Also they have conducted theoretical and critical analyses in the fields of gender, feminism, race and postcolonial studies (Ghaemi and Sojoudi, 1397: 97). The autobiography provides writers with an opportunity to elevate themselves to the position of representing subject; that is to change into subjects who are also representatives of others. It is necessary to pay attention to the construction of self in and by autobiography, which becomes possible by asking questions about the ways through which writers produce and reproduce the cultural identity of their self through language.

    Results

    Four main discourses can be found in the two works, each of which strives to represent the Yazidi woman identity differently: a) the discourse of Kurdish Nationalist Party, b) the discourse of central government of Iraq and Arabs, c) the discourse of ISIS, and d) the discourse of Yazidi women writers.

    Conclusion

    In the two novels "The Last Girl" and "The Girl Who Fled from ISIS" there are four main discourses, each of which tries to represent the identity of the "Yazidi woman" in different ways: a) the discourse of the "Kurdish nationalist party"; b) the discourse of the "government" Central Iraq and the Arabs "; c)" ISIL "discourse; And d) the discourse of "Yazidi women writers". In these two works, Yazidi women, while reflecting the fragmentation of Yazidi identity as a sociological crisis, take constructive steps to build a new identity of society and their identity. Common narratives in rival discourses by stereotyping Yazidi women represent them merely as passive victims of gang rape at the hands of rapists. Yazidi women try to fight all the identities that the dominant discourses have defined for them, such as orphans, rape victims, captives and refugees, and instead create new identities such as the Yazidi leader, women's rights defender, peace ambassador and writer.

    Keywords: Autobiography, Identity, Yazidi women, Discourse theory, Laclau & Mouffe
  • Sedighesadat Meghdari*, Masume Yusefi Pages 99-127

    This study aimed to critically analyze the promotional texts in nature schools within Ecolinguistics approach. Data collected through telegram channels of nature schools over the past three years.These texts are often taken from Vahhabzadeh(2013 and 2016). Finally,45 discourse texts were selected, comprising a total of 274 clauses. Each clause was analyzed based on Hallidays systemic functional grammar from the perspective of experiential, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions, and ultimately they were ecolinguistically examined. The relationship between human and the environment and understanding the views and attitudes of these schools are among the issues were examined. The results showed that the content of 168 clauses, i.e. 61 percent of clauses, encourages humans to conserve the environment and make proper use of nature and  In 149 cases, approximately 55%, there is a human-nature or nature-friendly relationship. As a result, these schools play a key role in changing human attitudes toward the environment, leading children to conserve nature.

    Introduction

     Environmental linguistics, by nature , is the critique of language forms contributing to environmental degradation and helping the exploration new forms of language that encourage people to protect the environment. This research aims to do an ecolinguistically critical discourse analysis on nature schools texts.

    Research Question(s)

    What is the relationship between man and nature in the propaganda texts of nature schools?

    Literature Review

    "Environmental Linguistics" is a book translated by Aghagolzadeh (2016) is the most comprehensive and complet book in Persian. Shahnaseri (2009) has ecolinguistically analyzed the shortcomings of science at both lexical and grammatical levels. Maleki et al. (2016) introduced the typology of environmental discourses in of Islamic National Parlement negotiations. Mirsaeedi (2016) showed the poems contain litral devices such as metaphor, prsonafication and so on can be considered as a model for turning Persian into a green language. Ghiasian and Shirini (2016) research is a decoding of humanism institutionalized in Persian language and culture. (see also Miboudi et al. (2014), Qatreh et al. (2015),  Rakaei and Naeemi (2016), Khairabadi (2015) and Mushtaqimehr and Faizi (1397) for similar disscussion).

    Methodology

    This research is done through Halliday's systematic- functional theory (2004), namely. experiential, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions from the perspective of ecolinguistically critical discourse analysis.

    Results

    Results obtained from experimental analysis of 274 clauses as the research data indicated relational process has the highest frequency with 107 items. This verifies the claim that relationships have a special place in the texts of nature schools. Results obtained from interpersonal analysis showes non-mentioned subject has the highest frequency, indicating the authors of nature school texts pay less attention to interaction and only play an informative role. The next case is positive polarity, which has the highest frequency with 201 cases, and shows that the author has presented his views with determination in most of his texts. The statment with a frequency of 228 is in the first place and shows the authors interst to give too informations to the readers. Application of grammatical aspects suggestes that the affirmative aspect with a frequency of 215 has the highest frequency. It indicates the author has a high degree of certainty. Results obtained from textual analysis shows the experimental initiator has the highest frequency indicating the authors seek to attract the audience's attention. The promotional perspective of nature schools analysis showed approximately 61% encourages human beings to preserve the environment.Finally, the relationship between man and nature in the studied texts indicates that in approximately 55%, there is a friendly relationship between human and nature.

    Keywords: Ecolinguistics, Critical discourse analysis, Nature schools, Systemic Functional grammar
  • Shirin Abadikhah*, Masoomeh Valipour Pages 129-166

    The aim of this study was to evaluate language needs and identify the priority of using language skills (reading, listening, writing and speaking) in different situations (private, academic, and professional). The research method is descriptive-analytic and the data collection tool is a questionnaire consisting of 49 items. The statistical population consisted of 199 students (73 males and 126 females) at BA (n = 69), MA (n =67) and Ph.D (n =63) at the University of Mazandaran. The responses of the participants were analyzed using SPSS software. In general, the results of the comparison of mean scores of language skills reavealed that with increasing educational level, students' needs to use language skills especially in academic domains increased steadily. Also, receptive skills (reading and hearing) have more usage than productive skills (speaking and writing) in all three groups. The results of data analysis through non-parametric tests showed that there were significant differences in reading skill among all groups, in writing skill between the Ph.D group and the two groups, and in speaking skill between the Ph.D and BA groups. In terms of language usage, while the needs of participants in the undergraduate level were related to their private life situations, doctoral students often expressed their needs in academic situations. There was no significant difference between different sections in the professional situation and listening skill. This study has implications for researchers, instructors, and learners of English language.

    Introduction

    Many scholars have stressed that the content of English courses do not correspond to the learners’ needs in a particular learning context. Therefore, before designing and implementing any curriculum for English for Academic Purposes (EAP), it is necessary to conduct a needs analysis to assess the language needs of language learners. This study attempts to identify the most important needs of university students as well as their preferences for using language skills in different academic, private and professional situations.
    Research Questions:The present study sought to provide a general analysis of the target language needs of the students in three educational levels. Therefore, the study sought to answer the following questions:1. How do university students (undergraduate and postgraduate) compare in their needs for the use of language skills in different situations?
     2. Is there any significant difference in the needs to use language skills (reading, listening, writing and speaking) among BA, MA and PhD students?
    3. Is there any significant difference in the needs to use language in different situations (private, academic and professional) among BA, MA and PhD students?

    Literature Review 

    The principles underlying course design in most of the English language programs are not consistent with the language needs of the university students (Atai & Tahririan, 2003; Eslami, 2010). Jordan (1997) suggested that the academic curriculum of an EAP course, in which attempt is made to meet the needs of the students in advanced university level, must be academically-oriented and consider the learners’ literacy abilities. In this regard, the EAP curriculum is designed based on the students’ awareness towards a particular language of specialty and therefore particular methods of speaking, writing or reading academic texts are applied. Analysis of needs as a first step in the design of courses can confirm the validity of courses (Johns, 1991). Since teaching all aspects of language is not possible, all approaches should be focused as much as possible on that part of the language which is related to the future needs of students (Mackey,1995). According to Brown (1995), the needs are not absolute, and once identified, they must be continuously validated to ensure that they are real. Needs analysis not only reflects the needs of language learners, but also enables the process of prioritizing needs through highly effective and feasible advanced statistics (Čapková & Kroupová, 2017). Mohammadi Rakati et al. (2015) emphasize that the most important objective of the needs analysis is to collect information about learners' problems in language skills, familiarize themselves with the gap between current abilities and the needs of learners, and determine the success rate of programs and textbooks in meeting these needs.Conducting a need analysis not only facilitates the process of constructing course objectives, but also it will lead to learners’ assurance in achieving the expected learning outcome.

    Methodology

    Data were collected from 199 students (73 males and 126 females) studying in different fields of study, including basic sciences, humanities and social sciences. The age of the participants ranged from 19 to 42 years. The first language of all participants was Persian and none of the participants had the experience of living in a foreign country. In this descriptive inferential study, data were collected using a questionnaire adopted from Kormos et al. (2002), which used a combination of the existing questionnaires (Nunan, 1988; Richterch, 1980) and the framework presented by the Education Committee of the European Union (council of Europe, 2001). The questionnaire was piloted and validated by think-aloud interviews and its reliability was ensured (r > 0.7). It comprised 49 questions requiring the participants to answer on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “never” (value 1) to  “always” (value 5). For the purpose of analysis, the questions were divided into 3 major domains of language use situations: private (18 items), academic (14 items), and professional (17 items).  After administration of the questionnaire, the responses of the students were scored, tabulated and subjected to a series of statistical analyses.

    Results

    The study indicated that the students from different educational levels reported different levels of  using language skills and expressed different needs in private, academic and professional domains. The difference was particularly meaningful between PhD students with both BA and MA students. Findings related to the first research question indicated a significant difference between the linguistic needs of undergraduate and postgraduate students in the academic and professional domains. In order to determine the exact location of the differences, multiple comparisons from the three levels of study were performed. The results of the analysis indicated that there was a significant difference in academic domain of English language use between undergraduate and postgraduate groups of students (MA and PhD). Concerning the second research question, PhD and undergraduate students reported the highest and lowest application of language skills, respectively. Furthermore, the receptive skills (reading and listening) in general were more used than the productive skills of speaking and writing in all three groups. Considering the last question, there was a significant difference in academic domain of English language use between undergraduate students and the two other groups of students (MA and PhD). In addition, all three groups differred significantly from each other in the use of English in professional domain. 

    Discussion

    Findings of the study indicate that the students are in need of increasing their general language proficiency particularly the written mode (reading and writing). This result seems to be in line with the findings of the studies by Eslami Rasekh (2010) and Atai and Nazari (2010). Therefore, most of the attention should be drawn to the written mode of language skills in academic course design of the university, since this mode was shown to be more frequent in the situations in which students use the target language.Secondly, it was found that the situations for using English language in academic and also teaching and other professional domains were considerably different considering the level of education. But no significant difference in private domain was observed. This finding could be justifiable since the participants reside in a country that English is considered as a foreign language; therefore, they are not expected to use language on a daily basis. Findings of the current study have obvious implications for the curriculum development for English programs as well as Iranian EFL instructors and course designers. They can revise and restructure the present courses based on the students’ most frequent perceived needs.

    Keywords: Language skills, Language needs, Present situations, Needs analysis, Undergraduate, postgraduate students
  • Anita Al-Daghi* Pages 167-197

    The results of data analysis showed that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of post-test in the experimental and control groups after the training of handicraft skills. That is, handwriting skills training had a significant effect on handwriting skills (uniform letter size and vocabulary, letter alignment, and spacing between letters) and motivation for students with learning disabilities. And the accuracy of the letter form and the legibility of the letters do not improve under the influence of the skill training of the hand. So it is better to improve these skills in other ways and through other trainings. The results of data analysis showed that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of post-test in the experimental and control groups after the training of handicraft skills. That is, handwriting skills training had a significant effect on handwriting skills (uniform letter size and vocabulary, letter alignment, and spacing between letters) and motivation for students with learning disabilities. And the accuracy of the letter form and the legibility of the letters do not improve under the influence of the skill training of the hand. So it is better to improve these skills in other ways and through other trainings.

    Introduction

    The present study investigated the effect of the grammar independent variable on research-related variables, namely handwriting and writing motivation of students with writing disorders in District 18 of Tehran. In order to study the relationships between independent variables and dependent variables, the experimental method with pre-test-post-test design was chosen as the research method. Accordingly, the statistical population includes all students with writing disorders in the first to third grades of the elementary school in District 18 of Tehran in the academic year 1397-1398. The statistical sample was purposefully selected and included 30 students who had a writing disorder in the first to third grades of the elementary school. The sample was randomly divided into experimental and control groups and the experimental group was given grammar skills training for 21 sessions. In order to measure the studied variables in this research, Minnesota handwriting skills test, Raven color intelligence test and researcher-made writing motivation test have been used. In order for the selected children not to have mental disabilities, color Raven intelligence test was used and Minnesota test and writing motivation test were used in the pre-test and post-test stages. The motor program used in this study is also a selection of the Lincoln-Ozortsky motor development scale, which includes fine motor skills related to the hand. Then, the analysis of covariance test was used to test the research hypotheses based on the collected data. The results of data analysis showed that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of post-test in the experimental and control groups after training in grammar skills. This means that teaching grammar skills have a significant effect on handwriting skills (uniform letter and word size, maintaining the alignment of letters relative to the written lines and the fit of the space between the letters) and the writing motivation of students with learning disabilities and the correctness of the shape of the letters and the readability of the letters do not improve under the influence of teaching grammar skills. So it is better to improve these skills in other ways and through other trainings.

    Literature review

    Learning Disabilities is one of the major topics in the field of psychology and education of children with special needs (exceptional) and educational psychology, which has been considered since the second and third decades of the twentieth century in developed countries, especially in Europe and the United States and It was noticed a decade ago in Iran. The term learning disability stems from the need to identify and serve students who consistently fail in their homework and yet do not fit into the exceptional age range of children. They have a natural appearance, their physical growth and height and weight indicate that they are normal. Their intelligence is more or less normal, they speak well, play like other children and communicate with others like their peers. They also have the necessary help at home and do well the work that their parents leave them to do. But they do not have the ability to flow the information to express and especially to write. Therefore, according to the general characteristics of these students, they can be placed in a new group called students with learning disabilities, and it can be said that students have disorders in one or more psychological processes related to comprehension using oral or written language, which can be complete inability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or perform mathematical calculations (Fletcher et al., 2007).

     Research Methodology

    The research design is a pre-test-post-test design. After selecting students with writing disorders, the designated students were tested by Raven Color Test. Raven Color IQ test was used to determine the IQ of students with learning disabilities. All the students were right-handed. Simple random sampling was used to form the experimental group and the first control group. The individuals were divided into experimental and control groups in a homogeneous manner. Individuals were grouped according to IQ and educational background. The individuals in each group were then evaluated based on the standardized Minnesota Writing Skills Test and their performance in the pre-test title writing skills was recorded.
    The statistical population studied in this study is all students with writing disorders in the first to the third grade of the elementary school in district 18 of Tehran in the academic year 1397-1398.
    The sample under study in this research was purposefully selected and includes 30 students who had a writing disorder in the first to the third grades of elementary school.

    Results and conclusion

    Of the 30 students selected, 14 were boys and 16 were girls. Their IQ, which was assessed using the Raven Color IQ test, was within our acceptable range of 90 to 100. Among them, about 10 students were studying in the first grade, 10 of them were in the second grade, and 10 were studying in the third grade.
    Grammar on the writing motivation of students with effective writing disorders, according to the research findings in comparison with the experimental group with the control group, it was concluded that grammar has a significant effect on handwriting skills and writing motivation in children with elementary school writing disorders; Thus, there was a significant difference between the mean scores related to handwriting skills and writing motivation in children with writing disorders in each experimental and control group and the main hypothesis of the research is confirmed. The results of this research are consistent with the research results of Akhavast (2009), Asadidoust (2008), Taghavi (2011), Uon (2008), Farsberg (2009), Engels Man (2013). Explaining the results of this hypothesis, it should be stated that the use of grammar training improves eye-hand coordination, motor sequence, body schema and information processing. Learning writing skills is enhanced by performing grammar skills, which is effective and possible in the child's performance. The use of such teachings promotes learning in writing concepts and increases the motivation to write assignments in students with writing disorders.

    Keywords: Grammar, Handwriting, Writing Motivation, Learning Disabilities, Writing Disorders
  • Reza Ghanbari Abdolmaleki*, Ailin Firoozian Pouresfahani Pages 199-232

    Critical discourse analysis is an approach that considers language as a social practice in relation to factors such as power and ideology. According to this approach, the present study has tried to use sociological-semantic components to demonstrate how `Jalal Al-Ahmad expressed his ideology through the representation of the characters of Fall Valley and how he portrayed the social agents of that period after Reza Shah’s fall. In this short story, linguistic constructions are analyzed through the sociological-semantic components. So Van Leeuwen’s modal is appropriate for analyzing the text and discovering the relationship between language and the author’s ideology. The main question of this paper is whether the author has been able to reveal his hidden ideology through the representation of social agents? Research findings exhibit that this has happened and Al-Ahmad has expressed his ideology and views in the story by using the methods of suppression, backgrounding, activation, passivation, personification and impersonalization. Using the general strategy of “exclusion”, he hides the identity of high-ranking officials of Pahlavi government and completely “ignores” them by “backgrounding”. The “government” and the “army” have been activated in the discourse, and the “workers” and the “elites” have been passivated to highlight the oppression that has been inflicted upon them for his audience.

    Introduction

    The main discussion in the present study is to examine the reflection of the discourse governing the working class of Reza Shah's era in the story of "Fall Valley". In this work, Al-Ahmad, using a general representation, shows the rulers of the Pahlavi regime as generally active in suppressing workers' protests.  He also identifies each of them with a distinct identity through a special representation. This research seeks to answer these questions in the framework of critical discourse analysis approach: 1.How does Van Leeuwen's theoretical model help to analyze the representation of social actors in the story? 2. Has the author been able to reflect his ideology in the text by representing the actors? 3. How is the relationship between the discourse-oriented components and the ideology embedded in the text explained? The main hypothesis related to the above questions is that Al-Ahmad has been able to use the depiction of social actors in the story to express his ideology.The results of the research related to the theory under study indicate that so far no research has been done on the subject of the present article, namely the sociological-semantic analysis of Al-Ahmad political stories and novels. Therefore, the present study examines this issue in order to compensate for the existing deficit in this field. Obviously, considering this point, the necessity and importance of such research is clear.

     Literature Review

    Regarding the theoretical background of the present study, several works were generally found in the fictional literature that have been criticized according to Van Leeuwen's model. Among these works, we can mention Pooshneh and Babak (2013) who, in their study, have found different ways of representing social activists in the story "Between Yesterday and Tomorrow" by Ebrahim Golestan. The main purpose of this study is to discover the relationship between intellectual-social (ideological) perspectives with discourse-oriented structures in the story.In their study, Saeidnia et al. (2014) have examined the novels of Suovashun and Sang-e Sabour from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and based on sociological-semantic components. The results of this study indicate that the authors of these novels have represented women as a second sex, weak and with lower social prestige than men.Junidi and Khaghani (2015) in their article have represented social action in zane ziadi (story collection). Their research findings show that in this set, actions are more inactive and static that are pushed into the background of the audience's mind.The subject of the research of Armi et al. (2017) is dedicated to the analysis of how gender relations are represented in the novel "Lullaby for a Dead Girl" by Hamid Reza Shahabadi. This research, in the framework of critical discourse analysis and using Van Leeuwen components, has analyzed and explained the role and identity of family members and their interpersonal relationships in the novel.In their article, Hamidreza Akbari et al. (2019) examine the story of "Ab-e Bid" by Mohammad Bahman Beigi to determine how the author has used the representation of social actors to express his views. He also uses the component of changing time, at the same time as raising the issue of modern Iran, to reveal the faces of the people of a part of Iran who still live in a prehistoric way. The author of the article has thus challenged the policies of the Pahlavi government.Although the present study is similar to some of these works in terms of methodology, including Junidi and Khaghani (2015), but specifically and in terms of the studied stories, a study that analyzes the political and ideological literature of Al-Ahmad with this method. Has not been found yet.

    Methodology

    The purpose of this research, with a descriptive-analytical approach, is to investigate the representation techniques of social actors using data collected from the story of Al-Ahmad. To achieve this goal, using a qualitative method, first thirty discourse-oriented sentences with political and social themes in the story were selected. These sentences were then analyzed based on Van Leeuwen's model in order to find the components of cognitive-semantic society. Although Van Leeuwon's theory lists 51 ways to represent social actors, the authors focus on only the most frequent components of the story, as not all of them appear in the selected sentences. Their findings show that the author has shown the actions of nomadic teachers to be effective through a mass display strategy.

    Discussion

    Van Leeuwen (2008, p. 52) divides the "exclusion" component in discourse into two types, "suppression" and "backgrounding". In the discourse of Al-Ahmad, we see on several occasions the "suppression" or extremist exclusion of the activists who are the main cause of the deplorable situation of the miners. These activists, who are in fact the rulers of the Pahlavi regime and the owners of the means of production; By substituting unknown faces, they are completely hidden in the author's discourse! It is obvious that the author has deliberately removed from his discourse the indications of the involvement of the Pahlavi authorities in these cases by removing those who are responsible for killing the freedom fighters. This form of "suppression" serves to marginalize the first person of the government, Reza Shah. The extreme omission of Reza Shah's name in the discourse occurs by using the method of "general naming" that is, bringing the title "state" instead of the title of king. In this way, Al-Ahmad has tried to present the image of the "state" as a general nature, hegemonic and totalitarian, in order to remove negative and extremist actions from the realm of the "king" by highlighting it.
           The most prominent example of "backgrounding" in the discourse of the story is when describing an actor who is referred to as "Colonel D". Although this officer has little presence in the discourse and his function is limited to his brief meeting with the head of the mine, his actions are recognizable in all incidents, including raids on workers' homes and their arrest and execution. The action of "Colonel D" (exploring the valleys of the mines) initiates a bloody repression, while its action in this story is diminished by the producer of the discourse and marginalized through the background.
           It is obvious that the main cause of the repression of the miners and the execution of the protagonist is the Pahlavi government and Reza Shah himself, while as mentioned before, no name of this person is mentioned in the discourse. The question here is whether the removal of Reza Shah's name from the discourse was due to political reasons and the suffocating atmosphere around the text? The definitive answer to this question seems difficult, because the author wrote this story in 1326, six years after the fall of Reza Shah, and therefore could have explicitly named him as the main person responsible for the Zirab mine accidents. But why does he remove Reza Shah's name from his discourse instead? Perhaps the concealment of Reza Shah's name was based on the assumption that the audience already knew the hidden actor.
           In the process of "expression", the presence of actors in discourse is represented in the forms of "activation", "passivation"," Personalization" and "Impersonalization". In Al-Ahmad's discourse, we see the active depiction of gendarmerie officers; For example, Haidar Babakhanlu is mentioned several times in the discourse, and his actions (including the torture of miners in the field court) are prominently represented in all behavioral and speech processes. The linguistic manifestation of this method is the role of the actor as the subject in certain clauses. It seems that Al-Ahmad wanted to portray all the members of that organization in a negative light by actively portraying Babakhanlu as a member of the army. In the discourse under study, the "boss" and the "miners" are actors who are shown to be passive. And they are represented as if they have escaped the attention of the country. It is possible that Al-Ahmad, with this kind of illustration, wanted to show the audience that the working class and the elite of Iranian society will always be ignored by politicians!

    5.

    Conclusion

    The authors of the present article sought to answer the question of how to use Van Leeuwen's strategies to analyze the representation of social actors in the story. The authors also sought to answer the question of whether the author was able to reflect his ideology in the text by representing the actors. Analysis of the research data, in addition to explaining the relationship between the discourse-oriented components and the ideology embedded in the text, showed that Al-Ahmad was able to use the representation of social actors in the story to express his ideology. His discourse shows that in representing the actors in the story, the author has used the strategy of expressing non-governmental actors in positive issues and removing them from negative issues, and vice versa, the same strategy in the case of government actors. Thus, statesmen are represented in the discourse as negative actors, and workers and miners as positive actors. In general, the author uses the method of "differentiation" to highlight the contradiction between these two groups, the "state" and the "working class". Using the method of "general naming", which uses the name "government" instead of mentioning the name of the king, the author has removed Reza Khan's name from the discourse of the story. The actors identified by their names in the author's discourse are all male and are portrayed formally, semi-formally, and informally. Al-Ahmad, by passively portraying the head of the mine, puts him in the spotlight to highlight the oppression that has been inflicted on him and the miners. In general, the representation of social actors in Al-Ahmad's discourse has been influenced by his socio-intellectual views and the power relations that govern the society of his time.

    Keywords: Critical discourse analysis, Ideology, Sociological-semantic components, Van Leeuwen, Al-Ahamd
  • Isa Motagizadeh*, Ali Hajikhani, Somayyeh Modiri Pages 233-259

    Authors usually choose the most appropriate style to influence the reader's mind. Style plays an important role in conveying content because people's desire to read a story depends largely on its writing style. Style is the mirror of the author and therefore, its change indicates the effect of external and internal factors on the style’s owner. Stylistics is the knowledge that describes the  characteristics of a text and then the relation beween these features and the text, and one of its branches is Statistical Stylistics. This approach takes into account the quantity of lexical phenomena in the text and based on the results of this survey, rules. In other words, it uses quantity to achieve quality. This article deals with statistical stylistics in the Nahj al-Balagha's letters. Letters 23, 30 and 73 were selected as samples and their style differences were extracted using two statistical theories, Busemann’s equation and Johnson’s theory, using the descriptive-analytical and statistical method. The result of applying these two theories to the selected samples is that according to Busemann's equation, style  of the letter30 is more literary than the other two letters, and style of letter 23 and 73 are almost similar. Also, according to Johnson's theory, the vocabulary richness in the letter 73 is more than the other letters, and letters 23 and 30 have approximately the same vocabulary richness. The results indicate the obvious effect of social conditions on how words are chosen by Imam Ali (PUH).

    Introduction

    The author's style and how he chooses the words plays the most essential role in the correct transmission of meanings to the readers. Accurate identification and analysis of each person's style will help to understand his/her content. One of the newest branches of rhetoric that deals with this issue is statistical stylistics.
    Statistical stylistics uses quantity to achieve quality and with the help of it, we will be able to recognize the characteristics of texts and compare them from different aspects. In this field, there are different theories; Including: Johnson’s theory, Youl’s theory, Busemann’s equation, entropy, NLP, etc. So far, a complete and one hundred percent accurate way to identify an author's style has not been introduced, and all that has been done is an effort to improve the method of identifying and distinguishing authors' style.This research is an attempt to identify Imam Ali’s style, using existing theories, which have not yet become science. In order to achieve this goal, we have used two theories to examine two factors of the theorists' desired factors and achieve more accurate results; So we chose Johnson's theory and Busemann’s equation.One of the conditions for the application of these two theories is the equality of the number of words in the selected texts and also their similarity in some fields (Maslouh, 1993, pp. 89 and 105); Therefore, in this study, from among 19 general categories of letters (Dashti, 2016, p. 357), we selected the "ethical category" and selected three letters 23, 30 and 73, with 84, 88 and 82 words, as samples. Therefore, they do not differ much in terms of subject and  the number of words.

     Literature Review

    Statistical stylistics is based on achieving the stylistic features of  a literary work using quantity and numerical values, and to achieve this goal, it counts the lexical elements of the literary work or the length of words and sentences, Or focuses on the relationship between adjectives, nouns, and verbs (Blith, 1989, p. 37). The use of statistical methods in style analysis has proven to be a reliable method (Biber, 1995). In this research, the output of these methods is used as quantity to achieve quality.

    Methodoloy

      Busemann’s equation

    Busemann counts the number of verbs and adjectives and then divides them. The result of this division is used as a criterion for measuring the literary nature of the text; Thus, the higher this ratio in a text, the closer its style to the literary style, and the less, the closer its style to the scientific style (Maslouh, 1992, pp. 73-74). This equation is as follows (the same, p. 77):In this study, we counted the number of verbs and adjectives in each letter and, after calculating the ratio, drew graphs related to it.
      Johnson’s Theory

    In Johnson's method, non-repetitive words are called “types” and the total number of words is called “Tokens”. Therefore, the diversity ratio is called “Type Token Ratio” (TTR) (Maslouh, 1993, p. 91). In this study, we selected the first 80 words from each letter as a sample and divided them into 4 groups (20 words). Then for each example, drew a table and removed the repetitive words.After obtaining the output of both theories, we discuss the cause of their differences and the effect of social conditions on this difference.

    Conclusion

    This research led to the following results:According to Busemann's theory, the highest (VAR) relates to the letter 30 and the lowest to the letter 23; Therefore, the style of  letter 30 is more literary than the other two letters, and the style of letters 23 and 73 is similar, but the style of all three letters is literary.
      According to Johnson's theory, in the letter 23  has used the most repetitive words and in the letter 73 has used the least repetitive words; Therefore, the highest vocabulary richness is related to the letter 73 and the lowest is related to the letter 23.Differences in the type of verbs used in letters indicate the effect of circumstances on how words are chosen. For example when Imam (PUH) intends to change the behavior of the reader, he has used maximum number of verbs, which indicates the overcoming of emotions.  Imam (PUH) is tired of correspondence with Muawiyah in letter 73 and avoids repeated conversations. Therefore, this letter has the highest vocabulary richness, but in letter 23, Imam (PUH) intended to clarify his will for the public, so he used more repetitive words to understand the subject well; Therefore, the vocabulary richness of this letter has decreased. On the other hand, the reader of  letter 30, unlike the letter 23, is a special person; Therefore, its style is more serious and has more vocabulary richness.Since all three letters were written during the caliphate of Imam (PUH), the general conditions for all three letters were the same and slight difference in the results indicates relative stability in the style of letters.

    Keywords: Statistical Stylistics, Busemann, Johnson, the Nahj al-Balagha’s letters
  • Sajjad Esmaili*, Danesh Mohammadi Rakati Pages 261-298

    Learning environment like other learning elements is a significant factor in improving the success of course planning and education progression. Due to the necessity of frequent usage of language in real environments, the significance of the environment in learning a foreign language is doubled. Although Arabic faculty groups have put promising efforts to enhance the environment of Arabic language speaking skill recently, it seems these environments are mostly in Persian language. In this paper, we investigate the obstacles which impede creating such environments. Therefore, we analyse experiences of Arabic language students via interviewing them. Finally, we propose solutions to tackle these obstacles. The results showed that challenges of Arabic learning environment include cases such as lack of learning group activities, anxiety, lack of encouragement to speak Arabic, use of Persian as the medium of instruction, lack of second language use by Arabic instructors in the class and lack of appropriate assignments.

    Introduction

    Concurrent with massive technological improvements and changes in methods of receiving and sending data, the topic of learning environments and their impact on the process of teaching-learning has become one of the main concerns of education and training researchers. To this end, the learning environment is not limited to the classroom. It can encompass different settings such as university, faculty, home, and society where learners aim for information, skills, abilities, and desired goals. As these environments get more dynamic and more related to the learner's goals and more aligned with educational content, learners play a more critical role in achieving the learning goals. Within the same direction, learning a foreign language requires an environment that language learners can utilise all their abilities to learn language skills. Although the importance of creating an appropriate Arabic environment and speaking Arabic in classrooms and educational spaces of university faculties is not hidden to anyone, one of the main problems of teaching this language in the last few decades is the lack of an appropriate environment for speaking the Arabic language. According to available data, the speaking environment in most Arabic groups inside and outside the classroom is Persian. Nonetheless, more efforts have been put toward enhancing Arabic language skills at universities in recent years. Some Arabic language teachers have encouraged their students to use this language in their natural environment and daily activities from the last decades until now. However, the main question is what challenges impede shaping such an environment and what constraints refrain students from using the Arabic language over the Persian language in classrooms and educational environments of universities. Accordingly, the Authors in this paper, who themselves are “teaching Arabic language” lecturers at university and encouraged their students to speak Arabic outside of speaking classes, aimed to search for challenges and constraints of achieving this goal by using students’ living experience. Therefore, the authors present practical suggestions based on student experiences for creating such university environments. Two questions are proposed to achieve the goal of research:What is the most critical challenge in forming an environment for learning Arabic speaking from the student’s perspective?What is the most practical solution to form an environment for learning Arabic speaking?

    Literature Review

    Considering the learning environment in learning language skills is of high importance. According to some of the learning views, such as communicational views of language teaching, enhancing the language skills of learners, especially their speaking skills, requires them to be in the real speaking environment. Based on the view, learners should be in the in real scenarios of speaking be part of presenting information which others don’t know, and in addition, they should speak about real topics in real conditions. They also should create concepts along with language and should practice exercises that are related to their needs (Tilver 1983 & Savignon 1983 equated to Chastain, 2011: 175). In an educational curriculum based on language skills, learners should be taught to use the language outside the classroom environment independent of educational exercises of each term. The learner should use whatever they have learned in the classroom, outside the classroom as well and be able to improve their language capabilities; they should be able to transfer his knowledge from language-living step, which is considering social and cultural language issues while using language, to practical knowledge which is the skill of using language (Bahrambeygi, 2020: 16).Therefore, since the primary goal of the educational curriculum of language teaching is improving the language capabilities of language learners to interact with other people, all aspects of the academic curriculum of language skills courses should be designed based on the most impactful learning environment, which is natural environments. Since the most crucial benefit of teaching in a natural environment is “consistent learning due to being sensible and incorporating the direct emotional experience of issues and events, not imposing the dull atmosphere in formal classes, creating motivation for learning and precise observation, which make the content of learning schedules more practical due to the connecting the education and living (Fallahian, et al, 2011: 11).

    Research method

    The research utilises a form qualitative research method and is conducted based on phenomenology. The goal of phenomenological studies is to study the world that can represent its individuals, especially when they are in the state of awareness that is expressive of an endeavour to become free of common prejudice and beliefs. Therefore, current research using this approach tries to extract students' living experiences around challenges of the Arabic speaking environment and presents theoretical and practical solutions to form an appropriate Arabic speaking environment. To collect information, semi-structured conversations are utilized. According to phenomenological research, individuals were chosen in conversation if they have experienced the event of interest; in other words, students who have some experience in the learning environment of Arabic speaking. Students were chosen to form three groups of weak, intermediate, and advanced speaking cohorts to increase data validity. During the interview, the focal topic was the following quest; what are the most challenging and impediments to the impactful environment in learning Arabic? Interviewees were selected based on targeted sampling, and sampling continued until “information saturation”. Information saturations were established by interviewing 220 students in terms four, five, six and seven of their bachelors in Arabic language and literature. To assure the validity of the finding, the “investigation using under-study individual” approach was used. Moreover, to investigate the confirmability of elements, two more analysers who were familiar with qualitative research revised the details. It was determined that they concurred with the first analyser in 90% of topics. Moreover, to evaluate the transferability criteria, the elements were provided to students out of the interviewee’s group, and they also found these elements similar to their experiences.

    Discussion and conclusion

    Due to the importance of language skills at educational and university centres in Iran, the living experience of Iranian Arabic learners shows that they are faced with different challenges in the learning environment of the Arabic language, such as inside classroom and outside classroom environments. And these challenges impede speaking the Arabic language. Based on the Arabic learners feedbacks, the most critical challenge is “not being coerced to speak Arabic by teacher”, “shyness and nervousness”, “low vocabulary range”, inappropriate arrangements of seats in classroom”, “no interactive environment”, “not using the classroom space optimally”, “teacher-oriented classes and lack of discussion among student”. In other classes also the most critical impediments of forming environment of Arabic language speaking are “very low usage of Arabic speaking by teachers”, “Dominant Persian language speaking in classes” , “speaking Arabic is not compulsory among student”. Among teachers the most critical challenges are “low range vocabulary and not being able to make sentences” “incapability to request” and “speaking of Persian”. Moreover, according to living experience of student “existence of no tranquil and dedicated to speaking Arabic” and “being afraid of ridicule” are the most critical challenges for not speaking Arabic. Along side the abovementioned challenges, challenges such as “negative view of public to Arabic language”,” No proper Arabic exercises”, “No cooperation for friend to speak Arabic” result in lack of experience in speaking Arabic in environment outside of universities such as home, dormitory etc. Therefore, these challenges can be categorized into three groups; Contend and approach of teaching, which is mainly related to inside class and is in control of teachers, the domain of environments outside classrooms which is related to faculties.; and the domain of outside faculties such schools, universities, home and student residential spaces.

    Keywords: Phenomenology, Learning environments, Teaching, learning Arabic language
  • Vahideh Abolhasani Zadeh*, Asma Izadi Bidani Pages 299-326

    Voice onset time (VOT) is the time between release of a stop consonant and pulses in larynx while making a following vowel or sonorant. In this research VOT is one of the most important acoustic distinctive features in recognition of voicing of Persian plosives, produced by repaired cleft lip and palate (RCLP) children in the onset of words. So, two groups of six participants with average age of 11, a group of two RCLP boys and four RCLP girls and a group of clients (two boys and four girls), were asked to repeat CVC framed words after the researchers, each word was consisted of one of the plosives in the onset and offset of the pattern and one of the Persian vowels in the center. The words were recorded using a Shure microphone and then they were analyzed using PRAAT software. The VOT of plosives was measured and compared between two groups of participants. The results indicate that DISABILITY, GENDER, VOICE, and PLACE OF ARTICULATION OF PLOSIVES affect mean VOT of them. The mean VOT of plosives in clients was less than RCLPs and boys produced plosives with shorter mean VOT comparing to girls. The mean VOT of voiceless plosives was more than that of voiced ones. Moreover, moving from bilabial to velar plosives the mean VOT increased.

    Introduction

    Speech is the process of making phonemes which transfers the meaning to the listener. It is also a useful tool for human beings to communicate with each other. The act of speaking needs adaptation between articulators. Speech disorder is a word used to mention a condition which affects the production of sounds. The size of vocal tract can also affect the quality of sounds. Cleft lip and palate, a kind of innate disorder in vocal tract, causes changes in the process of speech production. There are two types of cleft palate, cleft of the primary palate, alveolus and upper lip, and cleft of secondary palate, hard palate and uvula. Cleft lip is also divided into two types, unilateral cleft lip and bilateral cleft lip. A person may suffer from one of the mentioned disorders, in other conditions people may suffer from some or all of them (kummer, 2014, p. 26, 40, 43; Saudler, 2004, pp. 390-394). Type and the amount of severity of the mentioned disorders may cause difference in the speech of people who suffer from them (Rezaei et al. 2014). Research questions: The present study aims to measure voice onset time (VOT) in speech of children with repaired cleft lip and palate and compare them with normal peers in order to check if there is a difference between these groups with DISABILITY, GENDER, VOICE, and PLACE OF ARTICULATION OF PLOSIVES as factors.

    Literature Review 

    Recent studies showed that any disorder in speech causes disability in communication (Amiri shouki et al. 2015). Studying the speech of children with cleft lip and palate proves the mentioned point and showed that speech of these children is different from speech of normal clients(Moren et al., 2017) and children who have repaired cleft lip and palate has more phonetic problems comparing to normals (Deepthi & Pushpavathi, 2017). In another study by Casal et al (2002) it was proved that there was a significant difference between people with cleft lip and palate comparing to normal peers. Hypernasality is another disorder faced by children with cleft lip and palate (Derakhshandeh & Poorjavad, 2012). Voice onset time, length of time that passes between the release of a stop consonant and the onset of voicing which is the most important acoustic distinctive feature in recognition of voicing of Persian plosives, will be affected by different factors, one of these factors is disability (Yanagida et al., 2014; Lane et al., 1994; khouw & Ciocca, 2007). In a researche done by Roohparvar et al. (2010) on hearing aideds and another research done by Bechet et al. (2008) on people with cleft lip and palate it was proved that plosives produced by participants with mentioned disabilities have longer mean VOT comparing to normals. Another factor which affects VOT is place of articulation of plosives, moving from lips to the back of vocal tract the mean VOT of plosives increases Fischer and M. Goberman, 2010; Klatt, 1975; Morris, Mc Crea, and Herring, 2007; Theodore et al., 2009; Oh, 2011; Thornburgh and Ryalls, 1998; Ferenc Bunta et al., 2016; Rezaei et al. 2013; Salehi et al. 2013). The other factor affecting VOT is vowel context, plosives that are produced before high vowels have longer mean VOT (Fischer & M. Goberman, 2010; Klatt, 1975; Morris et al., 2007; Oh, 2011; Sudarshan et al., 2014; Bijankhan & Nourbakhsh, 2009; Rezaei et al. 2013). Gender is another factor affecting VOT Which was proved by Thornburgh & Ryalls (1998); Whiteside et al.,)2004(; Roohparvar et al. (2010); Bigankhan & Nourbakhsh (2009); Whiteside & Marshal (2001); Morris et al. (2007). Next factor affecting VOT is Voicing of plosives (Whiteside & Marshal, 2001).

    Methodology 

    Two groups of 12 children (2 boys and 4 girls with repaired unilateral cleft lip and cleft of primary palate (RCLP) who took part in language therapy classes for 144 hours and 2 boys and 4 girls as normal peers with no mental or physical problems) with average age of 11 took part in this study as volunteers and could leave it when they wanted to. They were asked to repeat CVC framed words with one of the Persian plosives [p, b, t, d, k, g] in the onset and coda and a vowel [a, e, o, ɒ, i, u] in the center of each word, [pap]، [pep]، [pop]، [pɒp]، [pup], [pip] are examples of the mentioned words. The total number of words was 432 and they were all recorded in an acoustic room using a shure microphone. Then PRAAT software was used to analyze the sounds and the boundaries between vowels and consonants and text greed were made for each word. After that PRAAT script was used to measure VOT of plosives. Repeated measure ANOVA test in SPSS software was used to compare mean VOT of plosives in both groups of participants according to mentioned factors, DISABILITY, GENDER, VOICE, and PLACE OF ARTICULATION OF PLOSIVEs.

    Results 

    The results revealed that DISABILITY, GENDER, VOICE, and PLACE OF ARTICULATION OF PLOSIVES affect mean VOT of them. Results of Post Hoc Bonferroni test showed that mean VOT of plosives in normal children was 19.319 ms less that mean VOT of them while they were produced by RCLPs. Moreover, girls produce plosives with longer mean VOT comparing to boys, the mean difference between them is 16,500 ms. This test also showed that the mean VOT of voiceless plosives is 47.361 ms less than mean VOT of voiced ones. By moving from lips to the back of vocal tract the mean VOT of plosives increase. The difference between mean VOT of bilabial plosives with alveolar and velar ones are 15.448 ms and 25.063 ms respectively and the difference between mean VOT of alveolar and palatals is 9.615ms. It is also important to mention that there is interaction between GENDER and VOICE. The results of Post Hoc Bonferroni test show that Boys produce voice less plosives with longer mean VOT comparing to girls, the mean difference between these genders is 29.582 ms. But, the results are not the same about voice plosives. The mean VOT of plosives produced by boys is 3.472 ms more than the mean VOT of them while they are produced by girls.

    Conclusion

    Regarding the aim of the present study, the effect of cleft lip and palate on VOT of plosives, the results showed that VOT of plosives in RCLP children is different from that of normal. As it was proved, the mean VOT of normals is less than the mean VOT of RCLPs. The results also showed that boy produce plosives with shorter mean VOT comparing to girls and voiceless plosives were produced with longer mean VOT comparing to voiced ones. Moving from lips to back of the tongue, mean VOT of plosives with different places of articulation increases. The mentioned results can be useful for language therapists who work with RCLP children as this research is the first study on Persian plosives with DISABILITY, GENDER, VOICE, and PLACE OF ARTICULATION OF PLOSIVES as factors. So, language therapists can use them in different stages of their teaching methods in order to help people with cleft lip and palate while comparing patients’ type of disability, their gender and their age.

    Keywords: Cleft lip, palate, Gender, Voice, Plosives
  • Ahmad Tamimdari*, Shima Bagheri Ahranjani Pages 327-356

    As the most well-known translator of Rumi in the United States, Coleman Barks is not without criticism. Due to many deviations and alterations to the original text, his translations have undergone harsh criticism by literary critics. Coleman Barks’ critics have considered different reasons for his alterations to the works of Rumi, the most important of which is his lack of knowledge over Farsi language. Other reasons include not paying attention to the culture and religion of Rumi and a biased distortion of Islamic elements. In this research we provide evidence against the above claims. Based on the Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe’s Discourse Theory and their notion of “Nodal Point” we have shown that the most fundamental mistake of Coleman Barks is to misrecognize the Nodal Point in the source text and considering all of them to be the same in all Rumi’s works. This has led to a deconstruction of the allegories and has turned the characters in the Masnavi, Quranic stories, mystical symbols and rituals into actual things, physical deeds, and historical figures, resulting in an inevitable distortion by Coleman Barks. Based on his own discourse and the discourse of his audience, he has tried to invent justifications, new themes, and explanations for the poetry of Rumi. To prove this hypothesis, we have analyzed his translations of Rumi’s “Story of The Reed”, “The People of the Cave”, his views on Jesus in the poetry of Rumi, and his description of the whirling dance “Sama”.

    Introduction

    Today, Barks’ translations are the best-selling translations of Rumi's works. They have been translated into more than twenty languages worldwide, and it can be said that many in the U.S. and other English-speaking countries know Rumi through the eyes of Barks. Numerous publications by Barks and the remarkable success of his work have naturally attracted the attention of critics. Iranian and foreign critics agree on the fact that there are obvious differences between the well-known Rumi as the East knows him and Barks’ Rumi. Bark’s translations portray Rumi as a modern age guru beyond or rather free from any religion or culture. The differences are to the extent that cannot always be dismissed by merely calling them a tasteful artistic alteration or a mistake. Some critics, e.g., Lahouti believes Barks has purposely distorted the poetry of Rumi since many of Barks’ deviations are towards verses with religious content.
    There are various assumptions about Barks’ acquisitions. Based on each of these hypotheses, critics have criticized one or more of Barks’ poems, but what is missing from these critiques is a comprehensive hypothesis that can be used to explain the totality of Coleman Barks' works. By examining unprecedented evidence from Bark’s translations, we will provide a more encompassing reason for his deviations to the original poetry using the idea of nodal point from Laclau and Mouffe’s discourse theory.

    Research Questions

    This study intends to answer the following questions:
    What is the scope of Coleman Barks’ alterations and are the critics accusations valid?
     Are Barks’ alterations intentional and biased or can they be explained by a more comprehensive theory?
     Can Laclau and Mouffe’s idea of discourse and nodal point explain the reason behind Coleman Barks’ alterations to Rumi’s Poetry?
    The main hypothesis of this research in answering the above questions is that although Coleman Barks' biases and lack of knowledge play a role in his changes to the poetry of Rumi, it is his misrecognition of the nodal point, ignoring Rumi’s discourse, and prioritizing his discourse over Rumi’s, that has led to the majority of alterations.

    Literature Review

    2.1. Translation Criticism: Coleman BarksA few papers have considered Coleman Barks’ free renderings of Rumi worthy of criticism. Hassan Lahouti’s articles and interviews suggest that Coleman Barks has purposely distorted Rumi’s poetry for political and religious reasons. (Lahouti, 2015 pp. 50-53). Omid Azadibougar and Simon Patton discuss the translatability of literature and culture, challenges to world literature in translation, and the popularity of this version of Rumi in the USA. (Azadibougar and  Patton, 2015 pp. 172-189)Nonetheless, research in this field has mostly applied the criteria of literature criticism to translation criticism and lacks a scientific wholistic view on the matter free from political, cultural and religious biases. In this paper we first, analyzed many examples from his most important popular translation “The Essential Rumi”. Second, by taking a discourse theory approach we have examined what has been so far regarded as biased distortions in translation in a new light.2.2. Laclau and Mouffe’s Discourse Theory: Nodal PointAlthough Laclau and Mouffe’s Discourse Theory mainly deals with political applications of discourse, recent research has broadened its application to art and literature as well. For example, Ricardo Camargo in “Rethinking the Political: A Genealogy of the “Antagonism” in Carl Schmitt through the Lens of Laclau-Mouffe-Žižek” (2015) presents a nonpolitical application of Laclau and Mouffe’s theory. In this paper we have shown how the correct recognition of “Nodal Point” can determine the validity of a literary translation. A discourse is formed by the partial fixation of meaning around certain Nodal Points (Laclau and Mouffe 1985: 112). A nodal point is a privileged sign around which the other signs are ordered; the other signs acquire their meaning from their relationship to the nodal point. (Jorgenson and Phillips 2008, p 26).

    Methodology

    This is qualitative research using a descriptive-analytical method of study. The data has been cited from the verses of Molana in the Masnavi and their equivalent in Barks’ translations in “The Essential Rumi”. Data has been collected through library research.

    Conclusion

    This study shows that Islamophobia, lack of familiarity with the Persian language, or other biases which critics have suggested as some of the main reasons for Bark’s alleged distortions, although not completely ruled out, is not the main reason for his numerous alterations to Rumi’s poetry. Using the perspectives of discourse analysis and the idea of “Nodal Point” in Laclau and Mouffe’s Theory, we find that a correct understanding of the discourse of the text in the source language and recognizing its nodal point is the main step in translation, the misdiagnosis of which turns into error, alteration, and distortion in the translation.
    Lack of a coherent theme behind the poem or the book in translation, deconstruction of allegories and adding to or reducing from the text in order to fit it into the translation’s presumptions and discourse are the main consequences of the translator's misunderstanding of the dominant discourse of the text in translation and its nodal point. This mainly leads to the ignoring of religious-Quranic discourse and mystical elements as the main discourse of the spiritual Masnavi which is based on the Quranic teachings applied to the mystical journey. Preferring his own discourse and assumption that Rumi is beyond religion and culture, the translator omits some parts of the source text and concepts and provides objective translations and interpretations of Rumi’s poetry instead.

    Keywords: Rumi, Coleman Barks, Discourse Analysis, Nodal Point, Laclau, Mouffe
  • Fatemeh Alsadat Madani, Sayyed Ali Asghar Mirbagheri Fard*, Sayyede Maryam Rozatian Pages 357-399

    Analyzing the process of mystical language formation, considering its main source, i.e. Qur’an, is an important new field of research. Due to the variety and extent of mystical texts, it requires fundamental and innovative researches so as to discover the hidden dimensions of this language. The aim of this research is then presenting a new proposed model for analyzing the process of mystical language formation, which is introduced as word behaviorology. Word behaviorology that analyzes the semantic changes of Qur’anic words in mystical textbooks is a step toward innovative analysis of the process of mystical language formation Word behaviorology model, using the advantages of Kurt Lewin's field theory in psychology and Izutsu's theory, creates a new form of mystical language analysis. Both Lewin's field theory, due to its considering environmental effects on behavior, and Izutu's theory, due to its considering the direct influence of Qur’an on mysticism, Islamic Sufism, basic and relative meaning, are very helpful in this research. The achievement of this research is that it presents word behaviorology as new path toward mystical language analysis.

    Introduction

     Mystical language, originating from all Islamic sources, is primarily related to the Qur'an, and its most important manifestation is mystical-literary works. The analysis of the reflection of this language based on word behaviorology opens a new path in the analysis of the process of formation of this language. Lewin's field theory is in the field of psychological studies and is used in the analysis of human behavior and the factors affecting it. This theory measures a person's behavior based on the environment around them. The reason for paying attention to this theory and introducing it to the field of linguistic studies is that due to its focus on the effect of environmental factors, it can be helpful in word analysis and the effect of environmental factors on its semantic changes in mystical language. The various dimensions, perspectives and details of Lewin's theory and its various applications in the analysis of psychological events are not the purpose of this study. What makes the basis of this research is the main ideas of Lewin's theory which are redefined according to their application in mystical language. On the other hand, in completing this research, what provides the effective and  creative application of Lewin's theory is the use of Izutsu's theory in the book of God and Man in the Qur'an.  In the second chapter of the book, by discussing “the Qur'an and the Post-Qur'anic systems”, he analyzes the direct impact of the Qur'anic system on subsequent conceptual systems, including Islamic mysticism. Furthermore, his discussions in the field of semantics, including basic meaning and relative meaning, which pay attention to the meaning of words, were used to analyze the semantic changes of Qur'anic words in mystical texts. Based on the creative use of theories and considering the differences that arise due to their application in mystical texts and the field of mystical language, these theories are used in a reconstructed process in this research. This application can lead to a new model in the analysis of mystical language.
     This template is provided for analyzing the language of phrases and mystical teaching texts. This research is done with the focus on the word Tawbah (repentance) in the text of Al-Ta'aruf Li-Madhhab Al-Tasawwuf by Al-Kalabadi. The authors have also written another article on "Analysis of the process of formation of mystical language". Research Question:The main question of this research is whether Lewin's field theory of psychology and Izutsu's theory of mystical language can be used to introduce the word behaviorology as a new way in analyzing the process of mystical  language formation?
    Research Hypothesis:The hypothesis of this research is that according to the capabilities of Lewin's field theory in psychology, by taking its focus away from man and his behavior, the focus of the theory can be shifted on the field of words and its behavior in mystical texts and with some fundamental changes, it can be introduced to the field of language studies. Therefore, by using the aforementioned theories, in a reconstructed process, a new model called the behavior of the word can be presented.

    Methodology

     Based on its purpose, this research is a fundamental one that seeks to introduce a new model for the analysis of mystical language.  The method of this research, considering its approach to the research problem, is descriptive-analytical in which researchers, using the mentioned theories, try to describe a new topic.  The method of collecting information is also library type. Accordingly, first in the theoretical part of the research, an introduction is provided in explaining the theories, and then a new form of combining the two theories in the behavioral model of the word is presented.  At the end, an example of the application of the new pattern will be shown.

     Literature Review

     This study, which for the first time presents a behavioral model of the word with the aim of analyzing the process of formation of mystical language in the Qur'an and shows an example of its use, does not have much research background;  Therefore, considering the main aspects of the research, some of the works that have paid attention to the formation of mystical language, its relationship with the Qur'an and the creation of a model, have been mentioned in the text of the article in the literature review section of the research.The theoretical foundations of the present study include part of Izutsu's theory in the book of God and Man in the Qur'an, as well as Kurt Lewine's field theory, the main ideas of which are introduced in the text of the article.

    Results

     The results of this study are: 1. This study as a step in analyzing the process of formation of mystical language, focusing on two points, namely the direct impact of the Qur'an on Islamic mysticism and mystical language according to Izutsu's theory and the creative use of Lewine's field theory in psychology, has designed the behavioral model of the word in mystical language; 2. This model, by including the environments that are formed around the word in the mystical text, showed that the behavioral model of the word can be used over time, with the aim of analyzing the semantic changes of words imported from the Qur'an to mystical teaching texts and by analyzing the semantic changes of the words in mystical texts, the evolution of mystical language can be studied. 3. The behavior of the word showed that a Qur'anic word entering the system of Islamic mysticism, when used by a writer in composing a mystical text, has four environments; lexical environment, mystical-linguistic environment, textual environment and other texts environment. The analysis of the interaction of these four environments in mystical teaching texts can draw a timeline which shows how the word entered into mysticism originated from the Qur'an and what new meanings it has received following the influence of the mysticism and Islamic Sufism based on environmental influences.4. The application of this model shows that Qur'anic words have relative meanings by entering the mystical educational texts under the influence of the four environments.  The meanings that are different from the Qur'anic meaning of the word and as a result of being in the conceptual system of Islamic mysticism have been loaded on the words and sometimes from the combination of words, new combinations have emerged which, although not used directly in the Qur'an, they have Qur'anic roots.  Drawing a pattern based on the word "Tawbah" (repentance) in Al-Ta'aruf showed that the word "Tawbah" entering this educational text, due to the influence of the mentioned environments, carries relative meanings which, although different from the Qur'anic meaning and formed under the influence of Islamic mysticism and Sufism, they are yet under the influence of the great Qur'anic system.  Therefore, according to the behavioral model of the word, in the process of formation of mystical language based on mystical educational texts, Quranic words accept new meanings by entering the system of Islamic mysticism, and by moving through a mystical-linguistic path, they create and develop a mystical language.

    Keywords: Qur’an, Mystical language, Word behaviorology, Relative meaning, Tawbah
  • Maryam Shafaghi*, Mahdi Mohammad Beygi Pages 391-424

    The authors in the present study attempt to investigate the speech act of compliments and its semantic boundary engagement with other speech acts of positive assessment of the speaker from the listener such as "approval", "praise", and "flattery ". The hypothesis of the present study is that the semantic boundary of speech acts containing positive assessment of the speaker depending on the verbal culture of the speakers of Russian and Iranian verbal environment is different,  and it is open to change in such a way that if a face expression in the Iranian cultural verbal environment is complimented, that expression may find the color and smell of flattery in the Russian verbal environment; in other words, an action with a positive assessment to an action with a negative assessment of the listener towards the speaker is interpreted as flattery. Furthermore, the compliment structures in each verbal culture have gender differences and characteristics (male and female). That is, the group of formulas used for men is inapplicable for women and vice versa. Iranian literature and compliments are interpreted as politeness in international research. Goffman (1955, 1976), Brown and Levinson (1978, 1987), and Leech (1983) were the founders of these studies (Faika, 2016, p. 109). In other linguistic works written about Taarof, it has been interpreted as ‘compliment’ (Alavi & Zeinali, 2014, p. 139). Evidently, the lack of linguistic equality in other linguistic cultures indicates the absence of linguistic phenomena or their difference in the target linguistic culture. In such cases, ‘Taarof’ is an unequal Iranian cultural phenomenon in other cultures. It can be interpreted neither as compliment nor ceremony nor politeness. Taarof in other cultures should be considered as an untranslatable national cultural phenomenon and presented as the term ‘Taarof’ (Izadi, 2018). In the verbal environment of Iranians, inappropriate compliments are considered a reprehensible practice. Hence, the Iranian proverb ‘reduce the compliments and increase the money’ referring to a situation where one is expected to pay a wage or do something, but instead, the audience witnesses ‘compliment’ and eloquence of the speaker in the concept of ‘Taarof’ and ‘praise’ of his action and performance. Compliment in Russian verbal culture does not have an emotional and expressive tone and rhythm. Such an action is interpreted more as flattery by the Russian listener. However, the predominant feature of Iranian verbal culture as an Eastern culture is an exaggeration in the act of ‘compliment’ and the boundary of the compliment formation from flattery is clear, and the listener has no difficulty in distinguishing the two. However, in most cases, ‘praise’ is used as a tool to form ‘compliment’ in this linguistic culture, and therefore in Iranian verbal culture, the actions of ‘compliment’ are combined with ‘praise’. However, this does not mean an overlap between the two boundaries. The following semantic and situational classifications can be considered in a compliment: 1) Gender: male and female; 2) personal and administrative; 3) Description of the external and internal qualities of the audience; 4) appropriate and inappropriate compliment; 5) compliment with an emotional tone. In the Iranian verbal culture, using expressive speech acts represents politeness and even Taarof with the help of complimenting the audience. Using these speech acts, the speaker shows his attention to the audience, expresses his sincerity in ‘compliment’ and ‘praise’, while in ‘flattery’ there is no element of intimacy, and it is the result of hypocrisy. Depending on how ‘approval’ is used, it can indicate the role of a communication channel, i.e., using approval as a sign of listening carefully to the speaker; or answering his question from the point of view of correct logic. ‘Compliment’ and ‘approval’ can be on the horizontal or vertical axis of socialization, while ‘praise’ and ‘flattery’ can be seen only in the vertical axis of the age hierarchy or social administration. For ‘compliment’ speech act, we can somehow determine expressive and verbal tools in some verbal situations, namely, complementing the appearance, referring to the freshness and youth stability of the audience, meeting after a long time etc., while such a classification is impossible for flattery and praise.

    Keywords: Speech Act of “Compliments”, Positive Assessment, Flattery, Speech Acts, Politeness, Compliments
  • Mojtaba Maghsoudi*, Ali-Akbar Khomijani-Farahani, Mehri Jalali Pages 425-458

    The contribution of bilingualism to L3 learning has been a controversial issue, as stated in the existing body of the related literature. Accordingly, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the possible differences between mono-lingual and bilingual learners of English in terms of its syntax with regard to their self-regulation strategy. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, 411 female and male participants from eight senior high schools in Arak were selected among Persian speaking learners and Persian-Turkish bilingual learners based on stratified sampling method A general English proficiency test, a self-regulation questionnaire and a syntactic structure test were administered to both groups to collect the required data. The results of one-way ANOVA, independent samples t-test revealed that monolingual and bilingual learners did not differ in learning syntactic structure. It was also indicated that there was a significant relationship between the subjects' self-regulation strategy and their general English proficiency. That is, the higher their levels of self- regulation strategy use, the higher their general English proficiency. According to the findings of the study, it is suggested that the high school teachers in Iran become familiar with self-regulation strategy and develop their teaching repertoire in terms of teaching techniques needed for developing self-regulation among their learners. In addition, in-service courses are required to help teachers learn and discuss the possible teaching techniques for developing EFL learners' self-regualtion strategy in high school EFL classes where bilingual or a mix of bilingual and monoloingual students are present.  

    Introduction

    It is not simple to answer the question "Who is bilingual?" And "What is bilingualism? Although linguists have offered various definitions in this field, one of them cannot easily be considered a comprehensive and complete definition. Some researchers define bilingualism as a complex psychological, linguistic, and socio-cultural behavior that has a variety of dimensions (Blom et al., 2014). Others define bilingualism as the linguistic ability of bilinguals in two different languages, especially in the verbal dimension (Martin et al., 2016). Studies on bilingualism and its effect on new language learning have not provided a definitive answer to the question of whether there is a link between bilingualism and faster learning of a new language. Therefore, due to the contradictory results of different researches in this field, the present study has investigated the effect of bilingualism in learning a new language on male and female high school students in Arak.
    The aim of the present study was to reduce the ambiguities about the effects of bilingualism on new language learning. Although half of Iranian people speak languages other than Persian, a few studies have been done on bilingualism and lots of questions have been unanswered. Therefore in this study the following hypotheses were formulated:H1: Monolingual and bilingual students differ in the application of syntactic structures.
    H2: There is a significant difference between students' self-regulatory learning skills and their language ability.

     Literature Review

    Bilingualism is a difficult concept to define, since many theories vary with respect to how much exposure a person needs to become native in a language. There is no general agreement among child language researchers about the 'normal' course of development among monolingual, nor among bilingual children. It is not possible to define the concept of complete acquisition, since it is difficult to define a person's control over a language. Researchers have found the following about the opportunity or threat of bilingualism in learning a new language: Kohnert (2010), Faiazi Barchini (2011) Golestani et al. (2016) and Barek and Bialy Stock (2011) mentioned that bilinguals not only suffer from academic retardation when learning a new language, but also show greater social maladaptation than monolinguals. Contrary to this view, many researchers have found that bilinguals are more careful and sensitive to learning a new language (foreign language), which helps them to learn more than one language (Vahedi & Jangi, 2016). In other words, they believe that bilinguals, as they experience the process of learning another language and are better equipped with general language learning strategies, their metacognitive awareness is increased. Therefore, they show better performance in learning the next language (Cenoz & Jessner, 2000; Ceylan & Harputlu, 2015; Tajalli & Satari, 2013). Thus, the benefits of bilingualism can be studied in relation to other areas of classroom learning, such as self-regulation as one of the most well-known mental performance functions. In other words, it can be seen whether bilingualism leads to higher mental executive functions, for example, higher self-regulation.

    Methodology

    Based on consensus among researchers regarding, the larger the size of the sample, the greater its precision or reliability, the present researchers invited 411 pre-university students both male and female with the age range of 16 to 19 at 8 schools from different areas of Arak (one of the industrial cities of Iran) to participate in present study. The investigators had to exclude 11 participants from this study because they were not involved in this range of age. The researcher elicited some demographic information about the participants through a background questionnaire in order to match them as closely as possible for SES to minimize the effect of social class. Accordingly the participants were classified as middle class. To achieve the objectives of the current study, some instruments as follows were used: a background questionnaire, general English proficiency test, the grammatical judgment test and a self-regulation questionnaire. In order to prevent any possible misunderstanding or confusion on the part of the participants and to ensure maximum understanding, the background questionnaire was developed in English along with its translation in Persian. After doing the sampling procedure and choosing subjects randomly 411 students were initially requested to participate in this study. Then testing was conducted in the respective schools by the investigators with the help of the school staff. The conditions for testing were strictly followed as far as possible.

    Results

     The results of independent t-test (t (227) = .65, p = .51> .05) showed that there was no significant difference between bilingual and monolingual students in the syntactic structure. The mean scores of bilingual and monolingual students in preposition stranding and pied piping were 3.06 and 3.14, respectively. The results of independent t-test (t (227) = .32, p = .79> .05) showed that bilingual and monolingual students performed the same. It was also shown that the mean score in self-regulation learning strategy of students with low language proficiency was39.26, with medium language proficiency was 43.68 and with high language proficiency was 44.50. The results of one-way ANOWA indicated that students' self-regulated learning strategies are significantly different based on their language proficiency (F(2,227) = 10.25, p = .00 < .05). Thus, it can be concluded that the self-regulation learning strategies of students have increased with increasing language proficiency.

    Conclusion

    To carry out this study, an ex post facto design was employed. A total of 411 male and female subjects at eight schools in Arak, Iran were randomly selected from among two groups of Turkish – Persian bilinguals and Persian monolinguals. General English proficiency test, a back ground,  a self-regulated learning strategy questionnaire and a syntactic structure test were administered to both groups. Statistical analyses including ANOVA, t-test and descriptive statistics revealed that there was no significant difference between bilingual and monolingual students in the syntactic structure. It was also indicated that students' self-regulated learning strategies are significantly different based on their language proficiency.

    Keywords: Bilingualism, Monolingualism, Syntactic knowledge, General English proficiency, Self-regulations
  • Somayyeh Sabah*, Mojgan Rashtchi Pages 459-492

    This study investigated the quantitative and qualitative impacts of shifting the narrative point of view on the representation of critical thinking (CT) in Iranian EAP learners’ written narratives. Sixty (30 women and 30 men) students of psychology who were selected based on convenience sampling were randomly divided into two equal experimental groups of the first-person group (FPG), and third-person summary group (TPSG). The researchers initially administered Watson-Glaser critical thinking appraisal-form A questionnaire (Watson & Glaser, 1980). The results of the independent samples t-test showed no statistically significant difference between the CT of the groups. Then the participants were given the short story of Butterflies (Grace, 1987). The TPSG participants inscribed their reflections on the story in narratives from the third-person perspective, whereas the FPG participants shifted the point of view and wrote first-person stories. The content analysis of the first- and third-person data based on Hatton and Smith’s (1995) taxonomy of writing types illustrated a statistically significant difference between the length and the number of descriptive writing and dialogical reflection clauses in first-person stories versus the number of the same clauses in third-person narratives. However, there was no statistically significant difference between the groups’ mean ranks of descriptive reflection and critical reflection clauses. Based on Bakhtin (1981, 1986), the dialogicality principle of both first- and third-person storylines was shown to be more descriptive, less descriptive reflective, less and less dialogic reflective, and still less critical reflective. The qualitative analysis confirmed that the writings demonstrated a heteroglossia of different writing types.

    Keywords: critical thinking, EAP, first-person narrative, point of view, third-person narrative
  • Mahnaz Karbalai Sadegh*, Mahsa Rabi Pour Dehshali Pages 493-523

    Conceptual metaphor is one of the most important topics on cognitive linguistics. This approach, believes that the metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon and what appears in the language is just an aspect of this cognitive phenomenon. In this research, we aim to analysis joyness and fear of eight teenage novels from two Iranian novelists (a man and a woman) and two Spanish novelists (a man and a woman) – two fictions from each writer – and compared conceptual metaphors on areas of destination for joyness and fear, in teenage literature in Persian and Spanish. We choose these feelings among the fundamental concepts of feeling (Sadness, joyness, fear, anger, love and shame). We used library method for this research. For this purpose, conceptual metaphors of joyness and fear were extracted from the eight selected novels and their conceptual name-mapping and also origins were identified. On the next level, we compared these conceptual name-mappings and were identified their points of sharing and differences. In this regard, some of the concepts of the origin area such as color, physiological and behavioral effects, light and darkness were described with details. The other main goal of this research is to investigating the impact of author's gender on the quantity and quality of using metaphors of joyness and fear.

    Keywords: Cognitive Linguistics, Conceptual Metaphor, The Metaphor of happiness, The Metaphor of joyness, The Metaphor of fear
  • Ramin Marzi, Mohammad Ahmadkhani*, Aliyeh Kord Zafaranlu Kambuziya Pages 525-555

    To know how people start their conversation and address each other is important in  studying social relation. In this research address in Azeri Turkish language Khoy spoken variety is studied. Research study is of content analysis. And data are collected by field study of 225 Khoy native speaker. The analysis of data showed that there are eight types of address forms in khoy dialect, which are first name, last name, titles, and family relationship terms, pet names, religious terms, occupational terms and reversed terms.  These address terms have three functions: showing intimacy, power distance and resoect. Also data analysis showed that age, education, job hieratchy, social ranking and family relatiopnshipare effective on sekectiong address terms.  Statistics shows that after first name, title is the most frequent address terms in Khoy variety of Azeri Turkish. Relegious terms have the most frequency among strange people which shos that reliogous affairs are important for Khoy people.

    Keywords: address terms, Azeri turkish
  • Somayyeh Al-Sadat Tabatabaei * Pages 557-596

    The author of the present article applies the "cultural turn" approach in translation studies to find out why Qavam Al-Din Bundari, in the seventh century AH, when translating the phrase: "     " From Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, chose equivalent of the word " " as " "? Because the text of Shahnameh is devoid of signs that clarify the gender of " ", so there is a hypertextual reason for thinking this word as masculine. An analysis of desire pattern and sexual mechanism in the age of the translator, also its before and after, show that the male actor / subject has in mind in his sexual act, at the same time, two active / objects: (non) masculine and feminine actionable. In other words, unlike the contemporary sexual desire pattern, based on heterosexuality and the male-female duality,in that period in addition to mentioned duality, the dual presence of male- (non) male is also evident in sexual behavior. A search of written and non-written works, such as surviving drawings from predecessors, reveals that the (non) masculine object includes: beardless boy, effeminate man, sodomy and non-testicle. Due to the actions attributed to " " in the text of Shahnameh, Bondary chooses " " as the equivalent of " " among these interpretation. Thus this selection is rooted in the pattern of sexual desire of the source community, not the equivalence of two words in the source and target languages.

    Keywords: Al- Shahnameh, Bundari, Translation studies, Cultural turn, Sexuality, Male desire object
  • Zahra Badamdari*, Ali Alizadeh, Elnaz Eghbali, Tahereh Vahidi Ferdowsi Pages 597-628

    Nowadays, Cognitive semantic approach plays an important role in learning second/foreign language. However, a few experimental investigations have applied a cognitive perspective to instructed L2 learning. The main purpose of the present research is comparing impact of cognitive approach to the traditional approach in learning some frequency concepts of the preposition "be" in Persian language. First, different meanings of preposition "be“ were selected from Farhang Sokhan Anvari (1381) and then some sentences and phrases containing this preposition were investigated according to the Farsi Biamoozim (1388) in the middle level. Prior to begging the instruction, 50 non-Persian learners (woman) were selected by proficiency test at Jamee-Almostafa of Mashhad center. This group were randomly divided into control and experimental groups and then, pre-test and post-test was applied between these groups. By using SPSS, comparison of the pre-test in control and experimental group revealed that there isn’t significant difference between prior knowledge of two groups before treatment, whereas the post-test showed that there is statistically significant difference between two groups. The results indicated that experimental group which was under the training of cognitive method showed significant gains than control group who received the traditional training methods.

    Keywords: Cognitive Semantics, Image Schema, Teaching, learning language, Preposition be
  • Fariba Hosseini Tashnizi, Mahinnaz Mirdehghan*, Nazanin Amirarjmandi, Ali Karimi Firozjaei Pages 629-669

    In accordance to the necessity of selecting efficient language learning strategies and methods for teaching English to Persian-speakers, in this research, Langacker’s cognitive grammar theory has been used as a creative method in teaching. The present study aims to evaluate the creative usage of cognitive grammar in education, which simplifies the process, provides better learning, and develops creativity and linguistic capabilities. For this purpose, the following questions were addressed: 1. After passing the "creative course of the learning style of describing a word in a sentence” what is the increase in the number of words used by the control and test groups through the "specificity" attribute in meaningful contextual texture? 2. How can we use the "syntagmatic combinations" attribute to facilitate the teaching of "complex linguistic units" construction in the sentences? In this regard, after creative training with a cognitive approach, 46 Farsi speakers were described qualitatively and quantitatively by using SPSS software. As a result, by using the creative courses of learning style and describing the word using Langacker’s cognitive grammar, learners were able to create linguistic well-form sentences. After completing the creative course of the learning style of describing a word in a sentence, the test group could expand 98% of the words from the total number of textbook words and include them in their texts. On the other hand, the control group managed to combine and collocate 44% of the total words without passing the creative course. The quasi-cognitive charts are used to simplify the education process.

    Keywords: Creative application of Langacker cognitive grammar, Specificity, Creative learning, Syntagmatic combinations, Linguistic capabilities (creativity)
  • Behzad Pourgharib* Pages 671-700

    While the study of the concept of transcendental signified is at the core of philosophical studies; its strengths are often applied in linguistics and literature.
    The present paper examines Walter Benjaminchr('39')s linguistic approach to the subject of transcendental signified in Kafkachr('39')s The Palace. Because of its high capacity for learning and discovering a sequence of transcendental signified in its key elements, this novel was selected. Martin Heidegger, and especially his successor Jacques Derrida, tried to use the concept of transcendental signified to criticize the tradition of metaphysical thinking. However, the aim of this research is to use content analysis to explore how such a method is present in Walter Benjaminchr('39')s thoughts and his popular principle of three layers of language, without specifically using the word transcendental signified. The same level of meaning development that is both feasible and unlikely is found at the third level of language, which Benjamin refers to as the "arena of nonsense."In Kafkachr('39')s The Palace, Benjaminchr('39')s argument, which is associated with Derridachr('39')s rejection of the existence of transcendental signified, has been put to practical use. Finally, the paper concludes that the relationship between explicitness and ambiguity in the three key elements of a story, namely the character "K," "Palace," and also the job of “Surveyor," reveal the impossibility of transcendental signified, and represent the third level of Benjamin’s language.

    Keywords: Linguistics, Transcendental signified, Jacques Derrida, Walter Benjamin, Kafka’s The Palace
  • Morteza Taghavi, Mohammadreza Hashemi * Pages 701-746

    One of the crucial topics discussed in descriptive translation studies is that of Translation Universals (TUs), which addresses typical, salient features of translational language that make it distinguished from other linguistic variants. Taking into consideration the differences between languages, the key question here is whether the purported universal features (mainly articulated based on examining European languages) exist in non-European, less- or uninvestigated languages. Employing Chesterman’s categorization of universals into ‘S-universals’ and ‘T-universals’, the present study aimed at examining the latter, less investigated group of universals. A comparable corpus was made of original and translated Persian expository texts to investigate two T-universals, namely simplification and explicitation. In the light of linguistic features of translational Persian obtained, the present study challenges the purported universals as none of the extracted features were in line with the previous studies’ prepositions.

    Keywords: Translation Universals, Comparable Corpus, Translational Persian, T-universals
  • Seyyed Mahdi Sadati Nooshabadi *, Mehdi Sabzevari, Narjes Banou Sabouri, Mazdak Anoushe Pages 747-783

    In this paper the structure and the symmetric merge of a noun phrase in the matrix and dependent clauses of the object-object relative clause in Persian language was studied based on the notions of symmetric merge and multi dominance proposed by Citko (2011b) and the results of study by Riemsdijk (2006a). Different examples of relative clauses in Persian language were analyzed based on the notion of symmetric merge proposed by Citko (2011b). These analyses showed that the classification of relative clauses in Persian language into two groups of headed and free relative is not completely compatible with what has been proposed by Citko (2011b) since in Persian language if we use the wh-word as the head of free relative clause, it would contribute to making the sentence as a wh-question one which is against the findings of Citko (2011b) in English language. Moreover, the results of this research showed that the observed properties of the shared constituent between the matrix and dependent clauses of the object relative clause in Persian language namely as having the same case, syntactic function, and thematic roles proveed that this noun phrase is merged simultaneously between the two clauses and is a shared constituent between two lexical verb heads in the hierarchical structure of the sentence. This approach provides a clear and cost-free explanation for the characteristics of the shared element in the object relative clause in Persian language.

    Keywords: Object Relative Clause, Symmetric Merge, Multi Dominance, MultipleAgree