مجله مطالعات حقوق تطبیقی
سال سیزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 25، بهار و تابستان 1401)

The right to taking photos in public places is acceptable on the basis of freedom of expression and the tacit consent of the owners of the image. Accordingly, individuals can take photos freely in these places without obtaining permit. However, taking photos is allowed only if the privacy of individuals is protected. Because people can expect the normal and legitimate expectation of "remaining anonymous". People do not expect to be in the spotlight or have their actions recorded, even if they know they are in the public eye. People like to be ignored when they are in a public place. In addition, the image can be considered as an example of personal information. Basically, the collection of personal information requires consent. Therefore, privacy must be maintained in photography. The importance of this is that even if it is a news incident, it is still not possible to ignore privacy. With this interpretation, privacy is not limited to private places and people in the public environment also have privacy. The main criterion in having privacy will be a reasonable expectation of the person.

The growth of airlines and competition, has raised new challenges for the exploitation of airport land infrastructure, out of which, the slot allocation in hub or dense airports is the most important one. The history of airports in the world has seen many rules in this regard, so that while in the beginning, “first-come, first-serve rule” used to be applied in many airports, the growth in demands made the regulators to devise new rules for slot allocation. Sometimes, committees comprised of the airlines were in charge of such delicate issue, but the rising anti-competitive practices and deadlock in agreements led the governments to step in and regulate the slot allocation based on various rules including “grandfather right rule”, “use it or lose it rule”, “buy-sell rule”, “lottery”, etc. Such rules which are followed by slot mobility and the possibility of taking it as collateral are dealt with in this article with emphasis on the economic and legal points of view and with a comparative study of EU, USA and Iranian law.

One of the most difficult cases to describe a contract is one in which the parties conclude two or more contracts in the form of a single contract. The main issue in such cases is how this contract should be described. Terms and rules of which of the contracts constituting the contract should govern the contract? And is there a Correlation between the constituent contracts of a mixed contract in terms of validity and invalidity? In this article, these issues have been studied with a descriptive-analytical method. It seems that if the combined contracts are Commutative and each Consideration is specified independently and none of the contracts is a stipulation or term of another contract, each of them is subject to its own rules and their validity and invalidity do not affect each other. But if the Consideration of the contract is the same or the parties have made the contracts conditional on each other, each contract is a part of the whole and the annulment of each contract is considered as partial annulment of the contract And the rules of sales unfulfilled in part, That is, the deduction from the Consideration and the Revocation of the correct part is applicable. Cases where a single contract is concluded that does not fit into any of the nominate contracts but the effects of multiple contracts have been used to achieve a single purpose, we are not dealing with a mixed contract but with a simple innominate contract.

Liberty of movement and freedom to choose residence is a fundamental human right that is enshrined in international human rights instruments and the constitutions of many countries. During the last decades, in most legal systems around the world significant changes have taken place in the field of women's rights and freedoms in their family and social relations. One of the manifestations of these developments is related to the conditions and restrictions in the field of women’s travelling abroad. In this paper, using library resources and with a comparative approach, we examine international human rights instruments as well as the regulations of different countries, especially Muslim countries, and their developments over the time regarding the legal conditions for married women to leave their own country. The purpose of this study is to identify the recent developments in the world, especially in Muslim countries vis-à-vis the individual and family rights of women and the position of Iranian law in this regard. To this end, the laws of eleven countries as follows are examined: France, Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Kuwait, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan (prior to Taliban control in 2021) and Iran. This study shows that among the countries studied, only Iranian law stipulates that the right of married women to travel abroad is subject to their husbands' consent. Meanwhile, other countries recognize, with some differences, the freedom and independence of married women in this regard. Nevertheless, various legal solutions are provided in these countries in order to ensure the fulfillment of marital obligations in the case where one spouse travels abroad.

While the European Union and the United States have each designed their own model for personal data protection, China is swiftly developing a particular data protection system in order to have power and competitive advantage over European countries, the United States and Japan. To explain the model, this article seeks to answer the question: what are the main features of the Chinese personal data protection model? Has China been impressed by the American or European model? For this purpose, the specific model designed by this country based on American and European patterns has been explained and analyzed. The results show that by imposing fragmented and sectoral regulations, China had first taken a similar approach to the United States’ in the field of data protection. It has then gradually moved towards the European approach and considered adoption of a comprehensive data protection law. Eventually, however, it has taken different approaches regarding the private and public sectors, data localization and restrictions on cross-border data transfer. Given that Iran has also just started the design of a data protection system, being informed about these approaches, especially the Chinese one, can put their strengths and weaknesses before Iranian policymakers and legislators.

To safeguard job security of workers against arbitrary dismissal by their employer on the one hand, and the possibility of exercise of the right of unilateral termination by employer in some cases, on the other hand, and mode of reconciliation between these two apparently conflicting goals has always been one of the most challenging issues in labor law. Achievement of the best solution in this regard might seem quite challenging; However, a thorough analysis of the basis and criteria which underly justified dismissal on part of employer might help achieve the preferred solution. Therefore, in the present study, we seek to provide an answer to the question of determining the preferred standard governing the employer’s right of unilateral termination. As the conclusion of our analysis, application of standard of “Fair Dismissal”, which, as a general rule, governs other rules and regulations regarding the right of termination of employer, is preferred. Accordingly, courts should on a case-by-case basis, determine whether the dismissal accords from formal and material point of view with requirements of fairness or not and thus base his decision as to its validity accordingly.

Although the traditional purpose of criminal procedure was to provide fair safeguards to protect the rights of the accused, but under the influence of victimology teachings, social demands were made for the legislature to pay attention to the neglected or diminished status of victims in criminal proceedings Which eventually led to changes and legal innovations in many developed countries, including the United States, to enhance the status of victims. This article tries to examine in a descriptive-analytical method whether the domestic legislator in writing criminal procedure law like some developed countries, has paid attention to the teachings of victimology in improving the status of women victims in the proceedings and trying to prevent the aggravation or recurrence of their victimization? In response, it should be noted that a critical examination of the accused-oriented structure of the Code of Criminal Procedure shows that the legislature has not taken effective steps to prevent the aggravation or recurrence of victimization in general and victimized women in particular in the proceedings. Ignoring the training of trained officers to interact appropriately with women victims, welcoming the teachings of scientific victimology in blaming victims, especially in sexual violence, or failing to provide special support, including specialized women's police stations, or measures to strengthen security can be considered as an example of the shortcomings examining in this paper.

Digital products have been the subject of international trade over the recent decades. Due to such economic significance, the place of such new comer economic phenomenon in international sales law documents is becoming much more colorful for legal discussion, Nevertheless, the debate over the 1980 Vienna Convention which deals only with goods, has not been updated. The main question of this paper is what components of the term 'goods' under the Vienna Convention of 1980 and what attitude can be considered in digital content. The paper has tried to show how the word 'goods' has been used in European directives. In this regard, some of these recently adopted directives, such as the (Directive-SGD-2019), have been slightly softened and they have somehow treated digital products as goods. By employing these documents, finally, the present work answers its main problematic question about the CISG. Given the preamble to the convention and general principles of it, such as its international character, it can be said that this convention has confirmed contemporary custom of international trade, not just a historical usage of the pre1980s. Therefore, noting the possibility of physical reception through Articles 30, 53 and 60 of the Convention, those all refer to the ability of physical possess, it seems that the word 'goods' in the Convention remains on its own literal meaning. And the outgoing perception from mentioned articles will be the status of physical possession at the time of delivery of goods, as a condition in most digital products.

The disability can be a legal impediment to the independence of incapable publicly or personal occupation in its affairs and thanks to the very fact that a large part of society is disregarded and impacted. It's direct to the status of the person behavior, procedures, causes, and factors to eliminate it are vital and widely used legal issues. The need to support these property owners and control their relationships has led to the institution of forced province and entities and mandatory province. Marriage is one of the factors that address the incapacity and make people independent. This article with a comparative approach and descriptive and analytical method wish to recognize the views, similarities, and differences of the laws of the two countries, Asian countries and France, and Shi'ite Muslim jurisprudence (as the most supply of Iranian law) and identify and eliminate potential deficiencies in the outcome of ward wedding in effort disability. The effectiveness of the women's marriages in liberating their father and paternal grandfather's forced province was mentioned thanks to Iranian law that is aware of the forced province for them completely supported Shiite jurisprudence and contrary to French law that expressly states that ward marriage is that the reason to the emancipation of forced province; there's no specification in Iranian law on this matter. Citing narrative sources indicating that divorced or non-virgin (Thayyiba) females were out of their father's forced province, as well as modeling on the history of the French legislative and judicial system, it is necessary to specify this ruling in Iranian law.

Children and adolescents are more likely to be harmed by others in terms of age and personality against social events, including deviance and delinquency.In fact, despite the fact that it is one of the Barriers tocriminal liability,But the vital and criticality of childhood and adolescence has led the legislatorTo design the rules among the child's behavioral and pedagogical factors and the system for responding to these social incompatibility behaviors in a special and differential legal system.Our lawmakers in the Islamic Penal Code of 2013, in pursuit of this goal, have enacted the following laws under Chapter 10 of the Law on the penalties and measures for the education of children and adolescents.In the Criminal Procedure Code of 2013, the title of the chapter on the enforcement of laws is limited to children and the institution implementing the judgments of children and adolescents.This study seeks to investigate the fact that although legislated materials for children and adolescents can be effective in the rehabilitation and development of children and adolescents, but in the Iranian penal system, what executive solutions are provided for these regulations and what are the executive challenges that they may face with in the implementation of criminal sentences. In this regard, the system of execution of criminal sentences of Iranian and Egyptian law is compared with a pathological view of Iranian law in order to provide effective suggestions for reforming the system of execution of criminal sentences of children and adolescents in Iran. It should be noted that this research has been done by descriptive-analytical method and in the collection of resources, the library method has been used.

Compared to ordinary laws, budget acts must be prepared and proposed by the Government in a short period and reviewed and approved by Parliament. This short time frame has led both the Executive and the Legislator to include or add to the bill items that have nothing to do with the scope of these laws, i.e. public revenues and expenditures, but can be used at the end of the fiscal year and passed them away from the attention of public opinion and the media. Such a ploy violates, above all, the principles of lawmaking today (such as the specific subject matter of each law and the quality of the law). That is why the laws provide for solutions to prevent it. In this analytical-critical article, we will examine this phenomenon in France and the strategies that were developed in the Fifth Republic, based on the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Council, to reduce it. Since there is a similar problem in Iran, the achievements of the French model can be instructive for the legislator and the body that controls the compatibility of laws with the Constitution.

Psychiatric damage is any damage to the psyche of people that causes their illness. Sometimes the victim himself is not exposed to the accident, but as a result of the accident to another person, suffers from Psychiatric injury, which are called "secondary victims". Given that the scope of such victim is wide, more restrictions should be applied to compensate for the Psychiatric damage of such victims. Designing and identifying an appropriate and efficient rule in this subject requires examining various aspects of the subject and comparative study. A study of British jurisprudence reveals the richness of this legal system in the face of this challenge. Accordingly, the main question of this article is what are the criteria for claiming compensation for secondary victims in English and Iranian law? In England, special and mandatory conditions are set to limit the scope of these victims, while in Iranian law there are no special rules. In England, the victim must have a close emotional tie with the immediate victim and must be close in time and space to the accident and must observe the accident. In addition, his psychiatric damage must have resulted from a sudden shock and a horrific event. This study shows that the restrictive mechanisms of psychological compensation used in English law have some shortcomings, but can be useful in Iranian law to achieve foreseeability and directness of damages.

Due to the great importance of human rights and its direct relationship with maintaining international peace and security, treaty institutions have emerged to monitor and control the implementation of human rights treaty standards. Such bodies are committees that act as monitoring bodies for universal human rights treaties. So far, 10 committees have been established in this way in the UN system. The committees, which form their main activities in this field through the State reporting system, have so far had significant effects on the implementation of human rights and the reform of national laws. Despite all the positive achievements of these institutions, there is a negative reality in this system; the system has never been carefully and coherently planned. Such incoherence and planning have led to many negative consequences, including financial problems, lack of staff and, insufficient effectiveness. The purpose of this article is to examine the various ideas and solutions to solve the problem of incoherence and waste of resources by asking whether it is time to consolidate these institutions in the Human Rights Council to solve the problems.

One of the challenges of the administrative system is the emergence of conflicts of interest among employees, which can imperil the public interests related to their job duties due to the motivation to pursue personal interests. The corrupting capacity of such a situation challenges the static stance of some systems in not intervening until the actualization of the abuses of those involved, and demonstrates the need to design an effective criminal policy that can counter this with the proper use of formal sanctions. In the present study, the reactionary rather than preventive responses to the criminal policy of the Persian Gulf countries regarding the conflict of interest situation have been studied in a descriptive-analytical method. The findings of the research show that some countries, such as the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, have adopted a delinquentization approach to conflict of interest, in which they deal with violators by administrative and disciplinary sanctions. This is while countries like Iraq, Oman and Kuwait use the criminal sanctions. Items such as activities and cooperation with private institutions related to government employment, holding stocks in private institutions related to the employee's job, refusing to forgo personal interest or resignation from a government job that creates conflict, refusing to render financial statements of employees who are exposed to conflicts of interest as well as abuse of job position in conflict of interest situations where it is not covered by the usual offenses in criminal law are among the examples that have faced formal and especially criminal sanctions in the criminal policy of these countries.

In different societies' political and public discourse, foreigners are considered to be responsible for drug offenses and make up a significant part of the criminal population of drugs offenses. Through theories like focal concerns, villain/ victim,  in-group favoritism, and theory of ethnic threat, the present study examines the effect of the offender's nationality on sentencing and its severity in the practice of courts. In this regard, qualitative research methods have been used. In-depth interviews with judicial activists, drug lawyers, and officers of  Drug Control Headquarters (15 cases) were used. The content of documents, including cases of drug offenses conviction (20 cases) and national courts verdicts about drug offenses of foreigners have been analyzed. The Findings show that through over-policing, immigrants (especially from the origin country of drugs or with low socio-economic status) are at the criminal justice system's focus. In addition, media representation of immigrants' crimes and its impact on public opinion and violation of the rules of hospitality by foreign offenders has led to immigrants being more blamable. finally, the lack of access to effective legal protection in the criminal justice system has provided grounds for discrimination against this group.

In this article, the basics of the theory of domination or non-domination of the self in Islamic jurisprudence and French law have been studied. The main question was whether there is a term "body and soul" in the narration of "people have dominion over their property" and in general, whether a person has dominion over his body and soul or whether domination and right over the soul has not been legislated, and in cases of doubt, is the principle on domination of the soul or on non-domination? By studying the narrations and criticizing the views of the Imami jurists and separating legal domination from real domination, it was concluded that the word "body and soul" does not appear in the aforesaid narration; and, all the verses and hadiths that forbid man from making harmful possessions in his body and soul deny dominion over body and soul as a rule. Therefore, the principle should be based on the lack of legal domination of man over his body and soul, except in cases where the Holy Shari'at has explicitly allowed a special possession or justifies the "necessity" ‌ and the basic rules of permitting such possession, such as repelling existing or potential harm, the need to save the life (of oneself or another) and save the life of a living human being, to repel more severe harm with lesser harm, the rule that something more important takes precedence over something important and the like. French law also recognizes the principle of non-domination of body and soul, and provides for exceptions in case of "medical necessity" for the treatment of oneself or another person and the sampling of organs and cells of a living person. French jurists have also opposed the approach of using human beings as a tool for scientific purposes with humanitarian and moral arguments, emphasizing human dignity and the place of the human soul in his body.

Corruption is one of the most important causes of backwardness in societies, which causes irreparable damage to governments. Therefore, dealing with such crimes will be possible when accompanied by the strong will of the responsible institutions and the establishment of correct rules in criminal laws and procedures. The present study is based on the question of whether Iran and Afghanistan have taken a different approach to corruption offenses. Have legislators considered the specificity of these crimes in passing laws? Both countries have taken effective measures in this regard in accordance with the law, but this does not mean taking a comprehensive approach to these crimes. In some cases, these criminals play an important role in the law-making process, and sometimes they are ignored. The existence of special features distinguishes these crimes from other crimes, which make the differential of litigation necessary. The present study is an attempt to examine the laws of both countries in accordance with the United Nation Convention and to distinguish between different stages of litigation and the role of experts in discovery and investigation.

This research, under the influence of a paradigmatic viewpoint in the philosophy of science, seeks to find the roots of paradigmatic legal historiography's constitutive elements. Thus, it offers a methodological discussion through which a researcher can have a better understanding of legal paradigms over time. A legal historiographer, by applying this method and by adopting different mental presuppositions about the law in different eras, would avoid the fatal error of assessing historical legal premises with the contemporary presuppositions. This procedure would place the historiographer in the very context they would intend to recognize. As a result, internal premises of law (principles, institutions, legal doctrines) would be placed and understood in direct relation with external assumptions of law (economic, political, religious, etc.) this process leads us to mix internal and external historiography which is another constituent of paradigmatic approach. Finally, this method would take the temporal discontinuity of law or jurisprudence into consideration and avoid legal evolutionists' negligence. They see legal history as a totality and apply their premises to its whole history.(Scientific research).

One of the principles governing the securities markets is the principle of institutional and organized supervision, which in Iranian law is done through the "Securities and Exchange Organization" and in American law, through the "Securities and Exchange Commission". Full and comprehensive supervision of securities markets is achieved when the scope of competence and authority of the regulatory body to prevent and deal with crimes and violations committed in the capital market, both in terms of regulation and operation. In American law, with a little carelessness, it can be argued that the jurisdiction of prosecutors to conduct investigations and obtain evidence has also been conferred on the Securities and Exchange Commission; As in Iranian law, with a little carelessness, it can be argued that the legislature has considered the role of "plaintiff" and "officer of justice" for the stock exchange organization in the face of crimes committed in the capital market. However, the application of each of these maps in each of the two legal systems is legally ambiguous and administratively flawed. The present article intends to explain the position and limits of authority of the regulatory body against the identification, follow-up and proof of crimes and violations of the securities market through a descriptive-analytical method and a library study through a comparative study of the two aforementioned legal systems.

Letters of credits are considered as a common method in commercial transactions for payment, disputes may arise from obtaining letters of credits and payment, and parties have tendency to resolve disputes through arbitration. Also letters of credits has been made up of several related contracts that have been concluded for common aim in spite of having legal autonomy. The purpose of this article is to provide a definition and overview of the function of letters of credits in the field of international trade and study of arbitrability of disputes arising from documents and letters of credits and extend the material scope of arbitration clause to other related contracts. In relation to the arbitrability of disputes arising out of letters of credit, the principle is based on the arbitrability of all disputes. International Center for Letter of Credit Arbitration has proposed specialized arbitration in this area. The Center's regulations indicate that arbitration in this area is carried out by experts involved in international banking operations.Regarding with the arbitration clause in the contract between principal and beneficiary, personal scope of arbitral tribunal is not extended due to the principle of independence of letters of credits and Doctrine of  Privity of contract to the relations of other contracts, but issues related to letters of credits can be within the jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal, although the tribunal cannot issue a binding award on third party.