فصلنامه تازه های علوم شناختی
سال بیست و چهارم شماره 2 (پیاپی 94، تابستان 1401)

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a psychological disorder that begins in childhood and involves disproportionate levels of development in the areas of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. The prevalence of this disorder in children is 3.53%. In many cases, it showed that they persist into adulthood, and the prevalence of ADHD in adulthood is 3.4%. This disorder is one of childhood’s most pervasive developmental neurological disorders, which has been shown to be hyperactive, inattentive, or both, and is associated with numerous deficits in cognitive dimensions such as attention and inhibition control. Other cognitive deficiencies in this disorder include attention, controlling, and scheduling problems, indicating that the disorder is in the context of executive functions. Today, due to the side effects of drugs, the compulsion to continue consumption in order to maintain the effects, and weak adherence to drug therapy, non-drug treatments have been welcomed for this disorder. Non-drug treatments such as cognitive therapy based on mindfulness are a combination of cognitive-behavioral therapy and mindfulness and use sustainable attention training methods that include attention regulation, emotional regulation, and physical awareness. Thus, in this study, an attempt is made to improve the dimensions of selective attention and inhibitory control in ADHD by using cognitive therapy based on mindfulness.

The present study is applied in terms of purpose. In terms of control of variables, it is an experimental type with a pretest-posttest design in which the experimental group was exposed to mindfulness-based cognitive therapy training. The control group did not receive any intervention. The statistical population of this study includes all people with ADHD in Rasht. The number of participants in this study was 30 (18-35 years old) males (N: 15 in each group) that were selected in a targeted and accessible way and also through an online call based on the initial diagnosis of a psychologist, clinical interview researcher, and diagnostic test. The inclusion criteria in this study are the presence of ADHD syndrome from childhood. Criteria for exclusion were other psychological disorders (other than ADHD). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy interventions are based on Segal, Williams & Teasdale treatment program (19). The program consisted of eight 90-minute sessions and 45-minute homework three days a week (February 2021). The post-test was held for all members of the groups after the intervention sessions. A follow-up session was performed after three months to evaluate the durability of the intervention method. Pre-test and post-test data analysis were performed by SPSS statistical calculation software version 25. Instruments include the Connors Adult ADHD Screening Scale, the  Test, and the Go/No-GoTest. In order to analyze the data, in addition to descriptive methods (mean and standard deviation) for inferential analysis of test hypotheses, repeated measures analysis of variance was used.

The mean of pre-test, post-test, and follow-up inhibition control in the mindfulness group was 17.60, 14.47, and 14.40, with a standard deviation of 1.35, 1.95, and 1.50, respectively. The mean of pre-test, post-test, and follow-up inhibition control in the control group is equal to 18.00, 16.87 and 17.20, with a standard deviation of 1.89, 1.52, and 1.85, respectively. The mean of pre-test, post-test, and follow-up selective attention in the mindfulness group are 16, 12.80, and 11.60, with a standard deviation of 1, 0.86, and 0.73, respectively. Also, the mean of pre-test, post-test, and follow-up selective attention in the control group is equal to 16.80, 15.93, and 15.53, with a standard deviation of 1.61, 1.22, and 1.06, respectively. In the mindfulness group, post-test scores, and follow-up inhibition control and selective attention decreased compared to the pre-test (P<0.01), while in the control group, there was no significant difference in the three stages of the test (P<0.05). Therefore, mindfulness therapy has been effective in improving inhibition control and selective attention in the post-test and follow-up stages.

The treatment is a combination of relaxation and mindfulness. The use of relaxation techniques in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy has had a positive effect on reducing impulsivity in patients with ADHD. According to neuroimaging studies, mindfulness exercises cause structural changes in the prefrontal areas and strengthen cognitive mechanisms, including attention located in the prefrontal area. Based on the current study’s findings, it is recommended to perform cognitive therapy on mindfulness in clinics and psychological service centers as an effective intervention method of treatment.

Aging refers to people over 60 years of age in terms of developmental and functional processes and causes negative changes in various body systems. One of these fundamental changes is a reduction in cognitive or executive functions. Executive functions are brain-based skills needed to perform purposeful behaviors successfully. The vast majority of related studies have suggested that physical activity and motor interventions are factors that greatly enhance cognitive function. Several researchers have researched executive functions and practice, which differs from this research in several ways. The main focus of this research has been on extensive exercises with different skills (e.g., basketball andtennis) without the goal of motor learning (or without focusing on motor learning variables). However, some research has examined the effect of learning variables on the executive or cognitive functions, which are different from our society and the purpose of the current research. Therefore, this studyaimed to investigate the effect of training schedule and attentional focus on the executive functions of the elderly.

The method of the present study is semi-experimental with a pretest-posttest design with a control group. In terms of purpose, this research is in the category of applied research. The statistical population of the present study included older people in Ahvaz with an age range of 60-80 years. For this purpose, 60 people were selected by voluntary and self-determination sampling methods. After obtaining their consent, they were randomly assigned to one of four groups (external attention + variable training, external attention + constant training, internal attention+ variable training, internal attention + constant training). All steps of the present study were carried out under the supervision of the Research Ethics Committee of the Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran, following the basic principles of the Helsinki Declaration (1964). The primary tool used in this research is the purpose of darts designed to be used in darts throwing training intervention. Wisconsin and Stroop tests were used to assess executive functions in the elderly. After selecting the research groups, the participants completed a pre-test of executive functions (Stroop and Wisconsin tests). The individuals then completed a dart-throwing training intervention. The training intervention consisted of 30 darts throws in 10 days and 30 attempts each day. The practice of the research groups is as follows: The variable practice group performed their practice in all conditions or at all three distances (2, 2.60, and 3.20) from the dart center. The order of the intervals was predetermined and random, with a limit that each interval occurred ten times. The fixed training group also performed their throw training from a distance of 2.60 for a total of 30 training attempts (25). The method of presenting the instructions was that in the external focus group, during the dart training intervention, they received instructions to focus on the target heart, and in the internal focus group, they focused on their hands. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data. Significance level was considered for statistical comparisons (P<0.05).

The results showed that the groups significantly improved in executive function variables (Stroop test and Wisconsin). However, according to the obtained averages, it can be seen that among the research groups, the combined group of variable training and external focus had created more improvement in executive function variables. ANCOVA test was used to evaluate the effect of training with training Schedule conditions and focus on executive functions (Stroop test). The results of the ANCOVA test showed that the training schedule and attentional focus have a significant effect on the number of congruent errors, the number of incongruent errors, congruent correct answer, incongruent correct answer, congruent reaction time, incongruent reaction time, and interference has a significant effect. The results of intergroup differences in the variables of number of consonant errors, number of inconsistent errors, correct consonant response, correct inconsistent response, consonant reaction time, inconsistent reaction time, and interference also showed that there was a significant difference between the research groups and between the research groups variable exercise group + external focus had led to better results in the variables of the Stroop test of executive functions than the other groups. Nevertheless, no significant difference was observed between other research groups. Also, the ANCOVA test was used to evaluate the effect of training with training Schedule conditions and focus on executive functions (Wisconsin test). The results of the ANCOVA test showed that the schedule of the training and the focus of attention significantly affected the number of classes, exhaustion error, and specific error. Also, the results related to the difference between groups in the variables of the number of classes, exhaustion error, and specific error showed that there was a significant difference between the research groups and among the research groups, the variable training + external focus group led to better results in the Wisconsin test variables compared to other groups. However, no significant difference was observed between other research groups.

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of training schedule and focus instructions on the executive functions of the elderly. The results of this study showed that among the conditions in this study, variable training conditions + external focus had shown a significant improvement compared to other groups. Research results of Wollesen & Voelcker-Rehage (2014) (27), and Tait et al. (2017) (28) showed that the combined effects of exercise instead of its different effects could be more effective in improving executive functions in the elderly. The current study also showed concerning exercise makeup intervention and focus. Besides, this research's results are consistent with the results of Toyofuka et al. (2022) (31). In their research, they used dart training intervention to lateralize the hemisphere to prevent reduced cognitive function in the elderly. The results showed that the accuracy of the dart throwing test in the elderly group was positively correlated with the amount of hemisphere lateralization. Also, the obtained results indicate that dart training intervention strengthens the lateral hemisphere in the elderly and has a high potential as a suitable exercise in preventing dementia and reducing cognitive functions. Overall, it can be argued that, conceivably, the likelihood of the better performance of the variable training + external focus group combination can be attributed to the neurological justifications cited in the study by Toyofuku et al. (2022) (31). Because in this research, a similar training task was used, as well as the application of external focus and variable planning.

In the range of human individual and social life, there are numerous topics with different ways to learn. Learning can be considered the most fundamental process as a result of which the helpless and helpless creature becomes a transformed person whose cognitive abilities and thinking power know no bounds during the interaction with physical growth. The term executive functions refer to general structures, including several functions such as planning decisions and inhibitions in an organization that require excellent cognitive skills of the brain such as attention, working memory, language, perception, and creative thinking. These functions help people with learning tasks, intelligence stretches, and academic issues. The present study aimed to compare the effectiveness of two methods of attention training based on Fletcher program and computerized cognitive rehabilitation on executive functions and cognitive avoidance of children with particular learning disabilities.

This is a quasi-experimental study with a pre-test-post-test design of three groups with a control group (two experimental and one control group). Attention training based on Fletcher’s program and computerized rehabilitation training for children was applied to two experimental groups. The control did not receive any training. The statistical population of all students aged seven to ten years had learning disabilities referring to learning disability centers in Tehran in the academic year of 2019-2020. Among them, 30 people were selected as the statistical sample by the convenience sampling method. Then, this number was randomly divided into three groups (a 10-person group for attention training based on Fletcher’s program, a 10-person group for computerized cognitive rehabilitation for the child, and one group of ten as the control group). To collect data, this study used Sexton and Dogas’s (2008) cognitive avoidance questionnaires and executive functions (parent form) Gioia et al. (2000), Attention training based on Fletcher’s program (a 12-session of 45 minutes), Computerized cognitive rehabilitation (10 sessions of 30 minutes individually) was used. Inclusion criteria of the present study were interesting in participating in the study, first-to fourth-grade elementary students based on a referral to learning disability centers, IQ test and validation assessment in the center of learning disability, moderate to high intelligence (no mental retardation), no other disorders, and no psychological and medical treatment during the last two months. Exclusion criteria were absent from more than two sessions, students with intelligence under 85, and students whose learning disabilities are due to visual, auditory, motor, or mental retardation, emotional distress, environmental, cultural, or economic deprivation. Children with learning disabilities were selected from the centers for this disorder. Admission to these centers is such that at the discretion of the normal school teacher, they were referred to these centers, and in these centers, they were revised by conducting an intelligence test. The parents of the children received final confirmation of the learning disability, and a case was registered in the learning disabilities center. First, for students with learning disabilities, the cognitive avoidance questionnaire was presented by the student, and the executive functions questionnaire (parent form) was presented by one of the parents (pre-test). In the initial assessment, students with approved criteria remained in the study, and students who did not have the approved criteria and had intelligence under 85 were excluded from the study. Students were divided into three groups based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. After that, training sessions were held in groups for students. A group of ten people for the treatment method of attention training was used based on Fletcher’s program, which was implemented in 12 sessions. A group of ten people used computerized cognitive rehabilitation treatment with self-grammar training in ten sessions individually. The third group was in the control group without therapeutic intervention. Considering the passage of seven to ten days after training and treatment, students were re-evaluated by cognitive avoidance test, and parents were re-evaluated by executive functions test (parent form) (post-test). Post-test was retaken after one month to follow-up on the treatment. Multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance were used to analyze the data using SPSS software version 24.

Considering the level of significance (P<0.05), it can be stated that the rate of cognitive avoidance in the control group is significantly different from the attention training groups based on Fletcher’s program and cognitive rehabilitation (P=0.000). Nevertheless, the cognitive avoidance scores in the attention groups based on Fletcher’s program and computerized cognitive rehabilitation did not show a significant difference (P=0.051). This means that both interventions have been able to reduce cognitive avoidance. Due to the small size of the groups, the comparison of means was used to compare the reduction rate. Considering the significance level of 0.05, it can be stated that in the executive function variable, the score of the control group showed a significant difference from the scores of both attention training groups based on Fletcher program and computerized cognitive rehabilitation method (P<0.001). This indicates that both Fletcher-based attention training interventions and the computerized cognitive rehabilitation method effectively increased children's executive function with unique learning. On the other hand, no significant difference was observed between these two methods (P=0.738).

The results showed that two methods of attention training based on Fletcher’s program and the computerized cognitive rehabilitation affect executive functions and cognitive avoidance of children with particular learning disabilities. Applying cognitive computerized exercises can improve the performance of this range of students in the field of working memory. Besides, the close relationship between memory ability and cognitive processes can improve academic performance. Due to the cognitive processes involved in learning disabilities, the cognitive rehabilitation program mainly focuses on developing cognitive abilities. Thus, it is a special and unique type of treatment. A cognitive training computerized program provides tools that can be used to help improve basic mental processes that are significant in high-level learning.

Today, adolescent students' academic lives are complicated and full of challenges. The learners' interactions in the educational environment are usually identified as an essential factor and a leading and fundamental resource in expressing the emotional experiences, including self-handicapping. Academic self-handicapping is one of the less known strategies that are used to explain the failure. It has unpleasant academic outcomes for the students and other actors of the field in education. Some factors like metacognitive beliefs and perfectionism are related to this variable. Metacognition is a multi-aspect concept referring to psychological structures, event knowledge, and procedures, which are involved in control and explanation. The structure of perfectionism, the other structure studied in this research, refers to self-destructive thoughts and behaviors whose goal is to reach to be unreal. Some believe that perfectionism is an advantageous motivational property that increases success and accomplishment to priority and perfection. On the other hand, the concept of goal orientation indicates a coherent pattern of the person's beliefs, attributions, and emotions that leads him to have different tendencies to the situations. The present research was carried out with the purpose of determining the role of metacognitive beliefs and perfectionism in predicting academic self-handicapping by mediating goal orientation in senior high school students in Urmia.

This study's methodology was descriptive-correlational, done through a structural equation pattern. The statistical population of this research included all the senior high school students in Urmia, who were totally 30984 people. Among them, 827 people were selected by randomized cluster sampling method (413 people for the fitness of the primary model and 414 people for the measurement model). The sample was selected among 69 male schools and 77 female schools. The data collection instruments included the following: 1) Metacognitive Beliefs Questionnaire (1997) that was designed by Cartwright Hawton & Wells, and its short form has 30 items in five subscales. On this scale, Cronbach’s alpha in Iran was measured as 0.91, and its reliability for the total scale was 0.73. 2) Hewitt & Flett's Perfectionism Questionnaire (1991)  designed by Hewitt & Flett and had 30 items. On this scale, Cronbach’s alpha in Iran has measured as 0.90 to 0.78 for all its subscales, and its reliability for scale was between 0.80 to 0.84. 3) Midgley et al. designed the Academic Self-Handicapping Scale (1996), which has five items. This scale's internal consistency in Iran was measured as 0.77, and 4) goal orientation scale (1998) was firstly designed by Midgley et al. It has 12 items in four subscales. This scale Cronbach’s alpha in Iran was measured as 0.87. The structural equations method and especially Bootstrapping method were used To test the data (H1: P=0.001; H2=0.037).

The results of structural equation analysis in which there are three independent variables, four dependent or mediating variables, and a primary dependent variable indicated that the presented structural equation has a good fit, all the indices have an excellent fit, and the good fit index was 0.933. Confirmatory factor analysis of academic self-handicapping was carried out using first rank confirmatory factor analysis in the components level, which was done in graphic Amos software. The Academic Self-Handicapping Scale has 23 items, and item 21 was eliminated because of low reliability. The analysis showed that factor loads obtained for all the items are more than 0.4 and have enough validity to be kept in the measurement model. Also, the factor load of all the items is significant at the level of 95 percent. In order to examine the mediating role of one variable self-regulating method was used because of being easy. Regarding the results, it is observed that without the involvement of mediating variable of goal orientation, fear of negative appraisal has no significant effect on academic self-handicapping. An indirect effect of fear of negative appraisal on academic self-handicapping is insignificant. In order to examine the mediating effect of goal orientation on the influence of metacognitive beliefs on the students' academic self-handicapping, Bootstrapping's method was used. Based on the obtained results, it was observed that metacognitive beliefs significantly affect the student's academic self-handicapping without the involvement of the goal orientation mediating variable (t=-4.31, P=0.001). On the other hand, in the mediating model, the direct route of metacognitive beliefs in metacognitive beliefs on academic self-handicapping is significant in 95 percent of confidence (P=0.001). Nevertheless, the value of the direct standard coefficient in the direct model, which was equal to -0.506, decreased and became -0.502. Accordingly, it could be concluded that goal orientation has a minimal mediating effect on the relationship between metacognitive beliefs on the students' academic self-handicapping. In order to study the mediating effect of goal orientation in the relationship between perfectionism on the student’s academic self-handicapping, Bootstrapping's method was used. Based on the results it was observed that perfectionism has a reverse effect on the students' academic self-handicapping without the involvement of mediating variable of goal orientation. On the other hand, in the mediating model, the direct route of perfectionism on academic self-handicapping is not significant in 95 percent of confidence (P=0.986). In other words, adding the mediating variable of several types of goal orientation to the model causes the direct route coefficient for this structure, i.e., perfectionism with academic self-handicapping, to change from a significant to an insignificant state. Thus, it could be concluded that goal orientation fully mediatesthe relationship between perfectionism on the student's  academic self-handicapping.

According to the present study’s findings, it was concluded that the model of metacognitive beliefs, fear of negative appraisal, and perfectionism predict academic self-handicapping by the mediating role of goal orientation. The findings of this research regarding the factors that have a role in the student's academic self-handicapping could be applied in the schools and by the counselors, school psychologists, and teachers. Considering the importance of the adolescence period, which is a passing period in life, the  the present study’s findings could increase more knowledge about using self-handicapping behaviors and their outcomes and the success or failure factors in them.

Writing can be narrowly viewed as a particular kind of verbal production skill where text is manufactured to meet a discourse demand, or more broadly, as a complex, integrated performance that cannot be understood apart from the social and cognitive purposes it serves. Cognitive models consider writing as a problem-solving activity that involves coordinating multiple cognitive processes like other complicated intellectual ones. The findings of Daneshgar in the Academy of Persian Language and Literature revealed that Iranian students possess limited writing ability in comparison with reading, speaking, and listening skills (18). This approach provided the basis for the research's main question: how can the Iranian primary school students’ descriptive writing skills be improved by teaching construal operations like perspective and figure-ground?. The research aimed at developing an educational package consists of perspective and figure-ground construal operations and investigating its effect on the sixth-grade primary school students writing skills. The research questions were: (1) in describing a scene, what is the ground and what factors influence the choice of perspective; (2) how is it possible to teach the offered educational package to the students; and (3) how can the effectiveness of the educational package on the student writing skill be evaluated.

The present study was mixed (qualitative-quantitative) in terms of research paradigm, applied in terms of purpose, and quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest design with a control group in terms of method. The statistical population included all sixth-grade male and female students of the primary school in Rasht in the academic year 2020-2021, of which 40 students were selected by random sampling method and assigned to the experimental and control group (20 people in each group). Since there was no writing test corresponding to the present research purpose, the research instrument included the 10-item researcher-made questionnaire in which cognitive skills of creative thinking, information processes, reasoning, decision making, memory thinking, awareness, information assessment, problem-solving, research, and perception were evaluated concerning the construal operations of perspective and figure-ground. To assess the validity of the test, it was given to four experts in the fields of cognitive linguistics, cognitive psychology, cognitive education, curriculum planning, and a sixth-grade teacher. Its content validity was determined to be 80% by Content Validity Index (CVI). The reliability of the tests was measured by reference to the retest method. Specifically, the test was conducted twice on the same samples over the period of ten days. The correlation between their different sets of results was then calculated. A correlation assured the reliability of the test of 86%. For designing and compiling a training package, the theoretical concepts of construal operations of perspective and figure-ground were studied in reliable sources, and the affecting factors on choosing perspective or figure were identified. The experts assessed the designed package, and the revised version was then applied in the training sessions. The experimental group received the training package, while the control group was trained by the usual method based on the curriculum of the Ministry of Education. The revised form of the training package was developed by the TBLT method during 13 45-60-minute sessions in two sessions per week for the experimental group. Due to the coronavirus outbreak, the training was conducted virtually using Adobe Connect Application. After completion of the instructional program, a posttest was given to both experimental and control groups under the same condition. Data were analyzed using the analysis of covariance in SPSS-26.

The result showed that the utilization of theoretical concepts of construal operations, including perspective and figure-ground, made the production of writing educational packages possible. To adequately fulfilling this aspiration, theoretical concepts of cognitive linguistics and cognitive education were closely integrated. This educational package established a basic framework of key components of perspective and figure-ground to promote students’ descriptive writing skills. Students acquired familiarity with the ground and the influence factors on choosing perspective in a scene. Moreover, the findings of the research introduced TBLT as a practical method for teaching the offered educational package to the students. Through the task cycle, generating, organization and goal-setting occur. In addition, the result revealed that the education package of cognitive construal operations affected students’ descriptive writing (P<0.01). In other words, the writing score of students participating in cognitive construal operation training sessions increased significantly compared to the control group.

In line with McGutchen (2007) (9) and Bazerman (2009) (12), writing is a problem-solving task. Therefore, designing writing educational package based on cognitive construal operations introduces greater transparency to the trainers at primary school. This package accurately determines the cognitive components that are relevant for descriptive writing. Teaching educational package using the TBLT method, which aligns with Hayes and Flower’s (2017) three stages of planning, translation, and reviewing facilitate students’ writing skills. Consequently, implementing an educational writing package makes the students perform better in writing descriptive texts. As a result, the educational package of cognitive construal operations can be suggested as a facilitator in teaching descriptive writing to both teachers and students.

Death is among the most ubiquitous threats in human life, and thus, thoughts of death result in considerable anxiety, which must be constantly fended off by the use of specific psychological defenses (4). Terror Management Theory (TMT), an existential theory in the realm of experimental psychology, was proposed to account for the effect of mortality salience on cognition and behavior (5, 6). Two methodological concerns related to this theory include induction of death threat and assessment of death thought accessibility. Indeed, to study the effect of a death threat on psychological functions, it must first be established that a particular manipulation procedure increases death thought accessibility.Various procedures have been employed to induce mortality salience across the TMT literature (7-9, 12). Some of them possess a conscious nature and thus require a time delay after manipulation for the detection of Death-Thought Accessibility (DTA). This is because inducing death threat in consciousness stimulates proximal defenses, or suppression, to remove anxiety-laden death thoughts from consciousness. However, after an unavoidable delay and attention distraction, suppression is relaxed. As a result, death thoughts become highly accessible at the hinge of consciousness (11).The present study aimed first to assess the efficacy of a pictorial manipulation in inducing death threat (Hypothesis 1) and second to compare the effect of COVID-19 threat against that of death and control threat on the basis of this theory. To the best of our knowledge, no empirical study has yet examined the effect of COVID-19 threat salience on the accessibility of death thoughts. Given the terror caused by Coronavirus during the pandemic and the everyday death toll associated with that (18), this research anticipated that COVID-19 threat manipulation would elicit a similar level of DTA as death threat (Hypothesis 2). Moreover, given the less explicit nature of the pictorial manipulation, it was hypothesized that the effect of threat induction on DTA would not depend on delay for either death (Hypothesis 3) or COVID-19 (Hypothesis 4) threat.

Participants were 148 Iranian university students (70.3% female, mean age=21.25, SD=3.26) who were randomly assigned to one of the six experimental conditions specified by threat type (death, COVID, toothache) and delay (non-delayed, delayed). To assess death thought accessibility, and following Arndt et al. (13), a Lexical Decision Task (LDT), consisting of 70 trials (ten practice, 30 non-words, ten neutral, ten negative, and ten death-related) was used. The task involved presenting one word at a time, instructing the participant to press K for words and D for non-words. Lower reaction time to death stimuli indicated a higher DTA.In an online study relying on voluntary participation, respondents were first presented with 11 images (three neutral, eight death-/COVID-19-related). After the presentation of each image for five seconds on the screen, they responded to a question about the size, shape, color, or orientation of one of the visual components in that image. The delayed group completed an irrelevant verbal task for four minutes before proceeding to the LDT, while the non-delay group answered to LDT immediately after viewing images. Prior to data analysis, according to Arndt et al. (13), trials with incorrect responses, as well as those with reaction times outside 200-2000 milliseconds, were removed, and mean reaction times were calculated for neutral, negative, and death-related words.

Experimental groups did not differ with respect to either age or sex ratio. Mean reaction time to negative, and death words were regressed to mean reaction time to neutral words to control for individual differences in reaction time. A mixed analysis of variance with threat type and delay as between-subjects factors and stimulus type (negative, death) as the within-subjects factor was run on regression residuals. The only significant effect in the analysis of variance was that of the two-way interaction of stimulus type and threat type, F(2, 142)=3.20, P=0.044. Simple effect tests to track the significant interaction term revealed that reaction time to death-related stimuli in the death threat condition, t(50)=-0.02, P=0.049, but not other types of threat manipulation, ts<1.15, ps>0.24, was lower than negative stimuli. This confirmed Hypothesis 1 regarding the efficacy of this method in inducing death threats. However, inconsistent with Hypothesis 2, the COVID-19 threat did not differ significantly from toothache (control condition) in stimulating death thought accessibility.In line with Hypothesis 3, the three-way interaction of threat type, stimulus type, and the delay was insignificant for the two-leveled death/toothache threat type, F(1, 94)=2.39, P=0.125. However, contrary to Hypothesis 4, the three-way interaction of threat type, stimulus type, and the delay was significant for the two-leveled COVID-19/toothache threat type, F(1, 93)=4.19, P=0.043. More specifically, death thought accessibility in response to the COVID-19 threat was more similar to that of death type in the delayed condition. In other words, DTA in response to the COVID-19 threat tended to be low and high in non-delayed and delayed conditions, respectively.

The present study’s findings suggest that the proposed pictorial manipulation effectively induces mortality salience. Therefore, it can be used in future studies to elicit death thoughts, particularly in online surveys, due to its relative ease of implementation. Moreover, given the lack of moderation of the effect of a death threat on DTA by delay, this method can be assumed to be less direct than conscious verbal methods commonly employed in the TMT literature.Four possibilities can be imagined with respect to the relationship between COVID-19 and death threat as follows: COVID-19 is not associated with death. COVID-19 is only implicitly related to death. COVID-19 threat is similar to and equal to the death threat. COVID-19 threat elicits more potent thoughts of death compared with death threat itself. The first possibility suggests low DTA in both delay and non-delay conditions. The second possibility involves high DTA immediately after the manipulation. For the third possibility to be correct, the pattern should not differ from death. The pattern yielded for COVID-19 threat in the present study can only be consistent with the fourth possibility, wherein the delay increased accessibility of death thoughts. However, the COVID-19 threat interacted with delay in a different manner from the death threat. In conclusion, the pattern yielded for the COVID-19 threat points to its more substantial potential to evoke death thoughts than death induction itself, similar to prior findings regarding cancer (13). A possible explanation for these findings is the more concrete nature of the death threat caused by COVID-19 due to constant coverage of its death toll in news and media and the availability of everyday cases. A similar effect has been found with respect to cancer in the TMT literature.Limitations of the present study include the relatively young age of participants and the particular time of data collection, i.e., not very long after the pandemic outbreak. Future researchers are recommended to investigate the effect of systematic variation of the pictorial induction method on DTA. A second possible direction involves exploring the moderating role of individual differences in the perception of vulnerability to disease.

  A comprehensive measure of phenomenology may offer new insights into both the inner workings of memory and the connections between memory and other important psychological phenomena. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the short form Memory Experience Questionnaire (MEQ) in students.

The statistical population of this study consisted of all students of Kharazmi University of Tehran in the academic year 1399-1400, of which 256 students (178 females, 78 males) participated online through virtual networks and They answered the short-form memory experiences questionnaire, the trait anxiety questionnaire, the mood and anxiety symptoms questionnaire and the loneliness questionnaire. The collected data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis, Cronbach's alpha and Pearson correlation coefficient in SPSS-25 and AMOS-25 software.

confirmatory factor analysis reveals a good fit of the ten-factor model of the memory experiences questionnaire. The criterion validity of the Memory Experiences Questionnaire was confirmed by the Loneliness, Trait Anxiety Questionnaire and the Mood and Anxiety Symptoms Questionnaire (P <0.05). The results of Cronbach's alpha indicated the appropriate internal consistency of the questionnaire and its components. Cronbach's alpha for Vividness Equal to 0.74, Coherence Equal to 0.71, Accessibility Equal to, Sensory Detail Equal to 0.45, Emotional Intensity Equal to 0.68, Visual Perspective Equal to 0.62., Time Perspective Equal to 0.74, Sharing Equal to 0.72, Distancing Equal to 0.83 and Valence was equal to 0.92.

According to the findings, it can be said that the Persian version of the short form of the Memory Experience Questionnaire (MEQ-SF), for measuring phenomenological memory in Iran, has appropriate psychometric properties and can Be a reliable tool in clinical and research situations.

This study was carried out with the aim of exploring the validity and reliability of the computer version of tasks for the inhibition component proportional to the Iranian population. In this investigation, three computer tasks based on Miyake and Friedman's theory of executive functions to assess inhibition were examined.

The anti-saccade task, Stroop task, and stop-signal task tests were the instruments employed in this survey. The current study is of the type of descriptive-analytical, which was conducted by quota sampling in the preliminary (pilot) stage on 100 people of four different ethnicities and languages and then on 406 normal individuals and 74 people with various clinical disorders in Kerman city (age range of 16 to 60 years). Face validity, content validity and discriminant validity were used to investigate the validity. Assessing the reliability of subscales was performed through internal consistency, test-retest, split-half correlation, and Spearman-Brown methods.

The subscales of anti-saccade, Stroop, and stop-signal tasks revealed excellent internal consistency and favorable reliability. These scales showed desirable face and content validity. The data achieved from the MANOVA analysis approach demonstrated a significant difference between the performance of normal individuals and people with different clinical disorders.

On the basis of the findings, this computer version of tasks has desirable reliability and validity to assess the inhibition component and can be employed as a valid instrument to measure the capability of inhibition in normal individuals and people with clinical disorders.

A sizable chunk of the population (~20-35% by various estimates) is known to score high on sensory processing sensitivity (SPS). This personality trait was first codified using a 27-item questionnaire known as the highly sensitive person scale (HSPS) by Aron and Aron in 1997. Despite the prevalence of this trait, the full version of HSPS with known validity and reliability in Persian is not yet available.

A total of 484 participants (70.86% female) participated in filling out the Persian HSPS (HSPS-P) questionnaire. Later, 168 participants (124 female) filled the HSPS-P a second time. Given the previous reports on the high correlation between SPS, depression, and anxiety, previously validated Persian questionnaires were also administered to all participants as well. Further analyses were performed to control the effect of depression and anxiety in the study population. Cronbach's alpha, Pearson correlation, and exploratory factor analysis were used to analyze the findings using MATLAB, SPSS, and Excel software.

The final HSPS-P showed high validity and reliability (alpha Cronbach 0.81 and test-retest reliability r= 0.78, split-half reliability r=0.66) which was comparable to the original English version and previous reports on translated HSPS in other languages. As expected, SPS, anxiety, and depression scores showed high correlations consistent with values previously reported (0.42, and 0.39, respectively, with P<0.001 in both tests). Importantly, the exploratory factor analysis showed a three-component structure in SPS revealed by HSPS-P which was stable even when controlling for the effects of anxiety and depression.

This study lays the ground for further research into highly sensitive personality in Persian-speaking populations by providing the validated 27-item HSPS in Farsi.

Cognitive reserve has been created to explain individual differences in vulnerability to brain changes and differences in the occurrence of clinical symptoms. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a tool to measure the cognitive reserve of the elderly and compare it in two healthy and mild cognitive impairment groups.

The research method was survey and causal-comparative. After studying the theoretical foundations of cognitive reserve and available tools, the desired scale was created and its face and content validity were reviewed and approved by four geriatricians. This scale was performed on 100 elderly people (female=53, male=47) with a mean age of (68.23±6.30) selected by the available sampling method in 2019. Reliability was assessed by Cronbach's alpha coefficient and the retest method. Validity was tested by concurrent validity (correlation) and diagnostic validity (discriminant analysis). The correlations of subscales with each other and with the total score were also calculated. Finally, the difference between the two groups (independent t-test) and the prediction of cognitive status (multiple regression) were also examined.

The results showed the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of α=0.623, retest reliability of 0.839, concurrent validity of 0.616 with cognitive reserve index questionnaire, diagnostic validity of 0.432, the cut-off point of 44, sensitivity of 61.2, and specificity of 62.7. The correlations of subscales with the total score were significant (r=0.654 for educational achievement, r=0.54 for job complexity, and r=0.947 for leisure activities (p<0.01)). The mean of cognitive reserve in the healthy group compared to mild cognitive impairment was higher (p<0.001) and regression analysis was significant for two variables of age and cognitive reserve (p<0.01).

The findings indicate the optimal validity and reliability of the elderly cognitive reserve scale. Due to the limitations of foreign tools and the design of the elderly cognitive reserve scale by Iranian culture, it is recommended for research in the fields of cognitive science and aging.

The aim of this study was to investigate the simple and multiple relationship between ambiguity tolerance, cognitive flexibility and thinking styles with cognitive and emotional creativity.

The research method was descriptive-correlational and was performed on 163 married people over 18 years old living in Zanjan in the first quarter of 1400. Data were collected through the Dennis and Vanderwal’s cognitive flexibility(2010), Sternberg-Wagner’s thinking Styles(Legislative, Judging, and Executive) (1992), McLain’s Type II Ambiguity Tolerance (2009), Averill’s emotional creativity (1991) and Abedi’s cognitive creativity (1993) questionnaires. linear relationship analysis were performed using Pearson correlation method. Also, in order to investigate the contribution of each of the predictor variables, the stepwise regression method in SPSS26 software was used.

The results indicated a positive and significant linear relationship between cognitive flexibility, three thinking styles and the ability to tolerate ambiguity with cognitive and emotional creativity(p<0.05). In addition, the stepwise regression analysis findings showed that the contribution of cognitive flexibility, ambiguity tolerance, and executive thinking style is greater in predicting cognitive creativity(36.3%). Also, the contribution of cognitive flexibility, legislator thinking style and ambiguity tolerance is greater in predicting emotional creativity(16.8%).

According to the research findings, it can be concluded that providing training in improving the ability to tolerate ambiguity, cognitive flexibility and fostering legislative and executive thinking styles among married people as well as people who are about to get married or even divorce, can help improve living conditions, resolve disputes, and successfully overcome challenges by increasing cognitive and emotional creativity.

The issue of perception and its relationship with external reality is one of the old issues in philosophy that has received more attention, especially in recent centuries, with the emergence of issues related to epistemology. This issue has also been studied in contemporary cognitive sciences. The most important studies in this field belong to researchers in the field of visual perception. More traditional theories in this field claim that the perceptual apparatus will be effective when it can represent external reality as accurately as possible, and therefore the logic of evolution and natural selection must have led to the creation of reality-consistent perceptual systems. But on the other hand, there are extremist theories, such as Interface Theory of Perception, which claim that, contrary to traditional theories, natural selection leads to the evolution of the perceptual system in such a way that our perceptions have nothing to do with external reality. We have shown in our previous work that neither traditional theories nor Interface theory are entirely correct, and the optimal state is for our perceptual apparatus to provide an approximation of reality.

In this study, we intend to obtain an estimate of the maximum accuracy of this approximation by using mathematical modeling of various perceptual devices in the framework of Agent-Based Modeling.

In this study, we have shown that even with strict conditions, our perceptual system can represent approximately 50% of reality. Also, by increasing the perceptual categories for the reality-approximating species to a level close to 40%, this species will still have a greater survival advantage than the interface species, and the precise realistic species.

Contrary to the interface theory of perception, in terms of realistic environmental conditions, not only evolution allows the survival of species that there is some kind of  homomorphism between their perception and reality, but even the possibility of the formation and survival of perceptual systems approximating reality to a reasonable extent.