فصلنامه مطالعات حقوقی
سال چهاردهم شماره 2 (تابستان 1401)

The theory of promise considers the conscious & intentional invocation of the convention of promises to justify the exercise of legal power to guarantee the contract. Such an understanding of the basis of the contract would provide a general rule for enforcing those legal acts that come as a promise. Nevertheless, this theory has been criticized in several major ways. Some critics have used their conception of the limits of contractual freedom as a pretext for criticizing the theory of promise. Some have attributed its weakness to the inconsistency of this theory with the larger theories of entitlement and the inability to explain some of the doctrines of the contract. Considering the sum of its arguments and critiques, it can be seen that although the theory of promise correctly explains a part of reality, it needs to be corrected in order to overemphasize the subjective aspect of the contract.

One of the important issues that is seriously raised in legal circles and courts is the correctness or incorrectness of obtaining the right of attorneys, in case of defending the unjust claim from the perspective of jurisprudence and law. What has been examined in the present paper is whether the power of attorney is legitimate in defending the false claim and the right of attorney arising from it? Imami jurists agree on its sanctity. With this explanation, in jurisprudence and law, it can be respected from several perspectives - both in terms of power of attorney and in terms of power of attorney. This research has dealt with this issue based on the analytical-descriptive method and after expressing the opinions and explaining the opinions of the jurists, it was concluded that accepting a power of attorney to defend a false claim and obtaining a power of attorney is forbidden; Because the obvious example is the possession of property in vain and the protection of sin. Therefore, it is appropriate for the legislator to impose a legal prohibition in this regard by enacting a single definite article, and the law should be approved in accordance with the issue.

One of the main challenges in attracting investment is maintaining the interests of foreign investment while protecting the public interest of the host country. The combination of these two is difficult and controversial. There is no comprehensive, agreed-upon definition of public interest in foreign investment law, although most investment agreements include the term "public purpose." In this article, we will examine the nature of the criterion of "public purpose " as one of the main principles of nationalization and will discuss the difference between the concept of public purpose and national security. The existence of a public purpose is one of the basic conditions for the legitimacy of the nationalization of capital and natural resources, while in international law there is no objective and clear criterion for evaluating the public purpose. Therefore, the decision on the legitimacy of expropriation based on the public purpose is practically left to the governments themselves to decide by exercising their authority. And the nationalizing state's recognition of the public purpose when nationalizing foreign property is based on the government's sovereignty over natural resources, but this does not prevent a foreign investor from objecting to it. The doctrines and procedures of international arbitration should also be referred to the domestic law of the nationalizing country.

Although the return to Iranian citizenship is a case of getting Iranian citizenship, the legislator assigns Articles 987 and 990 of Civil Law to it due to its characteristics. Despite the admirable attention given to these differences, unfortunately, these two Articles has suffered from some shortcomings related to conditions, nature, and effects which are resulted from this kind of citizenship, named "referral citizenship", and unluckily, it has not sufficiently been considered by the commentators of Civil Law. Therefore, the author of this study has deeply analyzed these mentioned Articles, explained their shortcomings, and in the end, the author thinks, he has tried to eliminate the shortcomings and correct them with some suggestions.

Nowadays, the use of electronic proceedings has been developed in various legal systems. In our legal system, the Judiciary now accepts and registers electronic petitions through the Electronic Judicial Service Offices. Most of the regulations governnig electronic filing of lawsuits are regulated by directive and bylaws and no specific provisions in this regard are found in Civil Procedure Code and other related regulations on this subject. So, in this article we will try to explain the Legal nature of electronic petition. In addition, various kinds of error or mistake in registration of contents of electronic petition and possible reliefs will be analysed. The findings of research show that electronic petition is an unofficial secure electronic document and withdrawal or modification of the error contents, although essentially possible, shall be subject to the provisions of the Civil Procedure Code accordiong to the case. This means that, as far as possible, the nature of corrective action or approach should be adapted to the well-known titles and institutions in civil procedure, such as the return of a petition or litigation, the increase or decrease or change of claim, and the completion or explanation of the petition, while observing the rules governing each of them. The results of this research may improve the quality, the speed and the accuracy of proceedings.

In most legal systems,interpretation is performed with the aim of determining the common will and intention of the parties.Sometimes,the contract texts contain vague,insufficient,defective,or contradictory elements that make it difficult to reveal the common intention of the parties,and may even lead to interpretations in clear contrast with the parties’common intention.At times,the circumstances governing the execution of a contract change to a degree that it is not possible to see the contract as the true interpretation of the intention of the parties.Hermeneutic interpretation methods revolve around three elements:the text,the author,and the interpreter.Among hermeneutic interpretation approaches,the hermeneutic circle is in greater harmony with major theories in the modern contract law and the contract law in Iran.interpreter considers all the mental elements and presuppositions of the parties when the text is prepared,and recreates the contract using implied terms,and accepted customs of the parties.This interpretation method is more flexible than traditional methods,thus achieving greater harmony with justice and fairness criteria by putting contractual relations under the government of the criteria of the actual will.this research sought to examine the methods of interpretation common in hermeneutics,enumerate the strengths and weaknesses of each,delve into major theories in the modern contract law such as neoformalism and convention-based interpretations,and finally develop a balanced method free of extremism according to current circumstances and the principles of the modern contract law.

The European system of human rights in the framework of the European Convention on Human Rights and the ECHR has played an undisputed role in the protection of asylum seekers and refugees. The Court, as the oversight mechanism of the Convention, has accepted the filing of lawsuits by non-Eu nationals against Eu States Parties to the Convention. In the meantime, several lawsuits have been filed by Iranian asylum seekers against European countries on three issues: religious freedom, sexual freedom and political freedom. Iranian asylum seekers mainly claim that they will face punishment if they are returned to Iran, which is contrary to the obligations of European countries under Article 3 of the Convention. The key question is what was the Court's approach to these causes of asylum? This article, in order to evaluate the Court's case law in the development and growth of asylum law, with an explanatory-analytical review and library method, shows that the Court accept a very low threshold to prove apostasy for Iranians. While having abnormal sexual behaviors due to the practical tolerance of the Iranian government in imposing punishment, in most cases has not been accepted as a reason for granting asylum. Political reasons have been less considered and accepted by the Court, mainly due to the superficial nature of the documents submitted by the applicants.

One of the conditions that couples, under the influence of current socio-economic and cultural status, want to include in marriage contract, is the condition of non-childbearing; That one of the serious challenges around it is the issue of its legitimacy from the point of view of the law .In the present study, by using descriptive-analytical method, we seek to answer the question: what is the meaning of illegitimate condition considered by the legislator in Article 232 of the Civil Law and whether the condition of non-childbearing is included in it or not? After examining the concept of illegitimate condition from the point of view of lawyers, we found that the mentioned condition is not included in any of its cases and is a legitimate condition from the point of view of civil law. The sanction of the mentioned condition will be, as the case may be, the demand for damages, the payment of the obligation money or, according to Article 1119 of the Civil Law, the wife's right to divorce.

Today, there is less dissidence in the limitation of implementation of the principle of contractual freedom. Especially, the principle cannot be considered as a basis of legitimacy and validity of the contract in B2C contracts or where a person in a weaker position than the other, or in standard contracts or contracts that are not negotiated by the parties. The imposition of any unjust and unfair condition that is contrary to good morals, public order and the obligatory rules is invalid. This prohibition cannot be violated by concluding a contract or including a condition in the contract. The sanction of the implementation of such a violation is the invalidity of the legal action. The uniform judicial precedent no 794 expresses the same view. The surplus profit condition is contrary to the general economic order and contrary to the obligatory rule and violates the prohibition of the legislator. Inspired by this this uniform judicial precedent, the courts should in any other case easily rule on the invalidity of a legal act which has violated a prohibition, and in principle prohibitions in the banking and monetary matters

The constitution is one of the most important concepts in public law that many theories and interpretations have been put forward by jurists and scholars of political science and philosophy. John Rawls, a political philosopher and theorist of justice, has addressed some of the legal concepts associated with his theory in his grand theory of justice. One of these concepts is constitution that Rawls has taken this concept very carefully. He has attempted to address this concept using constitutional theory, especially in the United States and He has attempted to define, legitimate and amendment refine its various aspects. Because it is impossible to understand the constitution in the United States without constitutional review, Rawls also explored the important role this institution in the development and interpretation of the constitution. The constitution is so important to Rawls's thought that he also sees democracy in the light of this concept and defends constitutional democracy. This article has attempted to understand the constitution of Rawls by examining his writings

Theoretical foundations of legal paternalism stem from particular epistemological, ethical and political theories. The existence of a wide range of paternalism such as soft, hard, strict, wide, pure and impure has led to the emergence of different attitudes toward paternalism. Recognition of legal paternalism requires a kind of authoritative legal system and results in ignoring the rights to freedoms of citizens and limitation of their choices. By criticizing the epistemic, moral and political foundations of paternalism, the article accepts paternalism in all aspects of citizen’s affairs including criminal issues only in a very limited way and exceptional cases. Findings of this study suggest that paternalism is accepted only if it does not violate the complete freedom of citizens and is seriously necessary. Moreover, paternalism is justified when its targets lack knowledge about matters as in case of infants, insanes and mentally ill people.

Participatory monitoring on performance refers to the form of monitoring in which citizens, service users, or civil society organizations participate in the process of monitoring and evaluating the provision of services and public functions. The process of participatory monitoring on performance is applied in different ways. Citizens' reporting card, community scoring card, and social auditing are the most common of them. One of the main goals of participatory monitoring is to monitor the performance of governments in relation to progress towards achieving the goals of sustainable development and pave the way for more public participation in increasing the quality of public services provided by governments. The present study is in answer to the question of how citizens can monitor the performance of the government in order to achieve sustainable development through participatory mechanisms? This research using descriptive-analytical methods show that this process is done using citizen-centered data. In fact, this form of monitoring is based on the analysis of information that citizens themselves have collected in various ways and the government or its organs have not intervened in this matter and the results are far more accurate and transparent than normal or government data-based monitoring.

In the analysis of rape, there are two different approaches: the first approach describes rape as "a crime motivated by the exercise of power and control over women under the influence of patriarchal social structures," and the other describes it as "a crime motivated by personal motivation to satisfying sexual needs". The latter approach has been shaped by the neglect of gender and social roles accepted by men and women as distinct social species; It is not surprising, then, that women's advocates emphasize the first view and view rape as a social phenomenon, not merely a biological one. This view, which seeks answers to why rape occurs in existing social and cultural factors, focuses part of rape research on rape myths. Rape myths, negative attitudes, and false beliefs about the crime of rape, rape victims, and perpetrators, all seek to justify rape and shift the burden of responsibility from the rapist to the victim. The present study, using analytical-descriptive method and gathering information required by the library method and reviewing rape cases, has attempted to enumerate these myths and explains how these beliefs and myths lead to the preservation of male domination and are influenced by values and The cultural norms that govern a society promote and perpetuate a culture of rape.