نشریه زبان پژوهی
پیاپی 43 (تابستان 1401)

The present data-driven research addresses retranslation and the development of the translator’s (Saleh Hosseini) competence over time.  Saleh Hosseini is a very prolific translator of Anglo-American literature in Iran. He spent his time doing full-length translation and teaching translation. His translations are printed and reprinted in huge numbers, making him an influential figure in the Iranian translation market. Moreover, his retranslations of his own previous translations make him an exceptional figure in translation studies. Retranslation is not an easy task; it is an ‘artistic recreation’ rather than a mere repetition. In fact, the second translation challenges the first translation of the same original work. Thus, the re-translator needs both translation skills and the courage to take up the challenge. The groundbreaking discussion on translators (i.e., Translator Studies) proposed by Chesterman (2009) served as the theoretical point of departure for the present research. Accordingly, Chesterman (2009) suggested a diagram as one way for conceptualizing Translator Studies. In his opinion, there are three branches in this diagram: Cultural, sociological and cognitive branches. The cultural branch is related to history, values, ideologies, the role of translators, and so forth. The Sociological branch concerns the translators’ behavior and their social networks. The cognitive branch deals with the decision-making, mental processes, the influence of emotions, personality, and attitudes towards norms. The present research draws upon the third branch of Translator Studies i.e., the cognitive branch.

Contemporary linguistics always seeks to present new theories to regulate studies systematically and objectively. After the emergence of cognitive semantics, many researchers and linguists started to write about it. One of the theories of cognitive semantics in literary studies is George Lakoff and Mark Johnson's conceptual metaphors theory. Metaphors, we live by described conceptual theory of metaphor or conceptual metaphor in detail in their first joint book.Regarding their theory, Lakoff and Johnson believe that one conceptual domain is understood based on another conceptual domain in conceptual metaphor. Since metaphor creates an implicit similarity between two domains or two conceptual domains, the term mapping can illustrate the connection between the two dominions. This term matches the characteristics of two cognitive domains close to each other in the form of metaphors. Conceptual metaphor is, in fact, the process of understanding and experiencing dominion (a), which takes place with the help of phenomena and terms related to dominion (b).

The concept of equivalence in translation has long been a bone of contention. This article provides a number of examples of situations in which producing equivalence in translation may be a challenge, e.g., when faced with culture-specific words, differences in expressive meaning between languages, differences in form, or words not (yet) lexicalized in the target language. Some of the strategies of producing what the translator considers equivalence include using a cultural substitution, a loanword, a loan translation, a less expressive word, a paraphrase, or an explanation. The translator may even choose to omit an aspect of meaning which, if transposed into the target language, would merely distract the reader from the key message. overall, it seems that equivalence in translation is not something that exists, but something the translator has to create.If the language is a set of names used for naming, then language users can replace the Arabic name with a Persian name that conveys the meaning. If the language is similar to what has been said, learning a new language will be easy, but anyone who has learned a language has realized that languages are not just a collection of nouns, and that language concepts can be different from concepts in another language.

In the introductory course of the Russian language, the subject of spelling is one of the most important pillars for writing skills. Since Russian is a morphological language, morphological endings of names, adjectives, numbers, pronouns, etc., change according to their grammatical role in the sentence. Therefore, knowing the correct form of words is very important in spelling and sentence construction. Meanwhile, the occurrence of errors in the spelling of Russian words by Persian-speaking learners of Russian is obvious and inevitable. The present article examines and analyzes the spelling errors of 51 Persian-speaking Russian learners at the elementary level of Russian language in universities of Guilan, Isfahan and Gonbad. In this study, first the type of errors, frequency and causes of their occurrence were identified and then the correct form of errors was determined. The results showed that the highest frequency of spelling errors is related to the errors of the "vowel replacement process" and the errors of phonological processes, including the processes of "converting consonants", "deleting", and "homogeneity".

In production and interpretation of discourse, interlucutors apply discourse markers (DMs) to establish and discover the relationship between discourse units (Crible & Dagand, 2019; Mohammadi & Radjaee, 2020; Schiffrin, 1987). DMs offer metadiscoursive instructions for the interpretation of discourse by the audience. This interactive process is activated through different types of metacommunicative knowledges and skills. Part of this experience embraces knowledge of text to employ grammatical and lexical elements to convey meaning. More important aspect of this faculty is related to metalanguage involving the capability to communicate different individual and social characteristics, to utilize language to communicate feelings, thoughts, and negotiate meaning (Maschler & Schiffrin, 2015). The analysis of DMs co-occurrences and combinations as a metadiscursive strategy can help researchers to predict specific possible patterns of DMs’ categorizations and such empirical and pragmatic findings will build up some foundations for future typological exploration as well as for the theorization of DM co-occurrences and collocations in general (Kassaei & Amouzadeh, 2020). Moreover, research in the area of language fluency has substantiated the positive influence of DMs investigation and analysis on second language acquisition and opens new horizons towards cognitive processes of discourse production and comprehension (Crible & Dagand,2019; Crible & Pascal, 2020). Based on DMs’ combinations sensitivity to contextual variables in real life situations, they develop novel interactive pragmatic strategies in communication in terms of emphasis, fluency of communication, and intimacy among the interlocutors (Jucker & Ziv, 1998). Consequently, the present researcher tried to investigate and compare the uses and pragmatic functions of co-occurrences of DMs in Arabic, English, and Persian texts.

The Avestan version of Vishtāsp Yasht is part of a late Avesta and consists of eight Fragards and sixty-five verses. In This Yasht, Zarathushtra concisely teaches the principles of religion to Vishtasp addressing by "O my son" as Ormazd does to Zarathushtra in the nineteenth Fragard in Vendidād. Vishtāsp Yasht presumably belongs to the second Nask of twenty-one Nasks of Sasanid Avesta named Vishtāsp Sāst from Hādagmānsarig class. What we call it Vishtāsp Sāst does not exist now and the abstract that we can find in eighth Fragard of Dinkard is too incomplete. Nevertheless, it allows us to inform on its content. According to eighth Fragard of Dinkard Vishtāsp Sāst relates to believing of Vishtāsp in Zarathushtra's religion and subjects relevant to it. Zarathushtra, the messenger, for reporting his task according to Ormazd's request, offers the needed knowledge to Vishtāsp. Then Ormazd sent Amahraspands to testify the truth of Zarathushra's message and also to show Vishtāsp what he will obtain with accepting Zarathushtra's religion. This acceptance results in Arjāsp's opposition. Arjāsp, who was provoked by anger, starts a war against Vishtāsp. The narration of this war which has been reported in Vishtāsp Sāst is missed in the existing text titled as Vishtāsp Yasht. In the other hand, according to the abstract which we know according to the eighth book of Dinkard, the narrative of the pious man and also wicked man after death which allocates the eithth fragards of Vishtāsp Yasht and has many resemblences with the second fragard of Hādokht Nask, does not exist in Vishtāsp Sāst. For many years, Avestan scholars have thought that the Avestan text of Vishtāsp Yasht is very new; Even newer than Vendidad, which Skjærvø (2007: 112ff) considers its time to be later than Yasna and Wisperad and in the partian period. The common sentences and phrases that Vishtāsp Yasht has with the Vendidad-e-sade have made Darmesteter consider it just a text of a combination of Vendidad sentences and phrases and an imitation of it. According to Darmsteter (1962: 324-325), Vishtāsp Yasht is not original, and is entirely borrowed from Vendidad and some other parts of Avesta. Mole (1963: 650) describes the linguistic structure of the Avestan text Vishtāsp Yasht as the most inaccurate among the existing Avestan texts, and according to the linguistic features of this text, he believes that Vishtasp Yasht is not only a part of the Achaemenid dynasty of Avesta, but also a part of the Sassanid dynasty. However, Mole does not accept Darmesteter's view either, and does not see this text as the result of the accidental juxtaposition of borrowed passages from other parts of the Avesta. Mole believes that Vishtāsp Yasht has practically all the elements in the narration of Vishtāsp Sāst: encouraging acceptance of religion, visiting Amahraspands, promising of blessing and victory, teaching religion, and revealing the reward after death. In contrast, what is lacking are details with narrative characteristics: the description of the coming of Amahraspands, the battle with Arjāsp, and so on. Mole is of the opinion that Vishtāsp Yasht probably indicates the adaptation of the content of Vishtāsp Yasht's myths to a prayer application (Mole, 2016: 413).

Persian language is one of the main cores of national identity in Iran; hence, efforts should be made to preserve it and awareness about it should be raised. The Supreme Council for Higher Education introduced a compulsory two-credit course for the history of Persian language. There is no doubt that this course demands a coursebook to facilitate learning and teaching as it is really important that coursebooks content be systematically arranged so that learning is not negatively affected or hampered. Research has it that content which is unfit and unsuitable and is not in line with student learning capacity results in the inefficiency of learning and teaching. Therefore, determining and developing effective course content according to the learners’ demands and cognitive and learning capacities is a must (Niknafs & Aliabadi, 2013).The interconnectedness of emotions and learning underpins the importance of students’ emotional engagement with the course content as the content should look and sound appealing enough to them. Narration appears to be a powerful technique to make the content engaging and attractive and to increase students’ motivation for learning. Narration is a sequence of events happening in time and place (Lothe, 2009). Numerus forms of narration can be found and this study focuses on the application of short stories as narrative text. Accordingly, text has diverse functions, including referential, emotive, persuasive, phatic, metalingual, and poetic, and each function plays a pivotal role in student’s successful learning. Metalingual and poetic functions bring about enjoyment and amusement and greatly affect audience. Also, the use of emotive and phatic functions can give pleasure to audience and give a sense of knowledge and understanding. The persuasive function shapes people’s attitudes and enables the sense of empathy, identity and imprinting. As a result, the learner directly encounters the content and can feel and analyze it. This helps students better internalize the information and learning materials. Additionally, when students are emotionally engaged in the stories and identify with the characters, they can easily memorize the materials (Sovia & Afrineta, 2017).Students’ emotional experiences can improve their ability to learn as emotions act as facilitators within the classroom and strengthen interactions among teachers and students, resulting in boosting the motivation for learning (Meyer & Turner, 2006).On account of the interconnectedness of emotions and learning, Pishghadam (2015) introduced the emotioncy notion which is a combination of emotion and frequency, wherein emotions are counted as the core of learning. This model hinges on the varying degrees of sensory emotions each word has and carries for individuals in their own society and these emotions are constructed through frequent exposure to diverse types of senses. More specifically, an individual has a higher degree of emotioncy towards a word when they have heard, seen, touched, experienced that word (Pishghadam et al., 2013). Emotioncy, as Pishghadam (2015) introduces, stands on a hierarchical matrix of six levels, including Null (0), Auditory (1), Visual (2), Kinesthetic (3), Inner (4), and Arch (5) or more specifically, avolvement (null) and exvolvement (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic) to involvement (inner and arch).Null emotioncy happens when an individual has not heard about, seen, or experienced an object or a concept while Auditory emotioncy has it that an individual has merely heard about a word. Visual emotioncy concerns the fact that an individual has both heard about and seen the item and Kinesthetic emotioncy occurs when an individual has touched, worked, or played with the real object. It is Inner emotioncy where an individual has directly experienced the word and Arch emotioncy implies that an individual has done research to get additional information.Despite the fact that motivation and emotions have been of importance in preparing and compiling educational resources and influence teachers and learners, the importance of the psychological factors in designing coursebooks has been ignored. This is because the main objective of many coursebooks is to convey information, and consequently, students’ emotions and feelings are simply overlooked. On the whole, relying upon the significance of students’ emotions and motivations in learning, the present study attempts to bring to the light the model of narrative-based emotioncy as a tentative model for revising coursebooks featuring history of Persian language.

Undoubtedly, traces of culture and spirit of people of any language community can be found in their language. With the careful analysis of each language, one can understand the culture it reflects. Pishghadam (2012) introduces the Persian concept of Zabahang that refer to the interrelationship between language and culture. He claims that each concept like the curse in a language is one manifestation of the culture that it represents and believes that cross-cultural and cross-linguistic research can use the concept of Zabahang to explore the representation of culture through language. Curse, as part of the vernacular/culture of society, is one of the most important speech acts in any language. This has been rarely noticed by researchers and it is necessary to provide a systematic classification of the themes of curses. In this study, the researchers intended to answer the following questions: What is the distribution of types of curses? Which types of curses have more tokens? And what is the connection between the types of curses and the culture of the society?

One of the most fundamental and vague human experiences that forms part of the complexity and richness of language is the "time". Time alone cannot be understood and experienced. Therefore, it is understood and experienced in the context of the "space". When thinking or talking about time, this is often done through two perspectives:  Moving Ego Metaphor and Moving Time Metaphor. From the Moving Ego perspective, time is constant and the observer moves towards time. But in Moving Time perspective, time is understood as moving, and the observer is constant. The people's perspective of time is determined by vague questions. Various researches have shown that some differences between individuals may influence the choice of a person's time perspective. The purpose of this research is to investigate the role of some individual differences in the metaphorical comprehension of time in Persian. These differences include lifestyle differences (students versus university staff), procrastination, conscientiousness and extroversion. In this regard, the present study seeks to answer the following questions:1- Is there any significant difference between Persian-speaking staff and university students in the metaphorical comprehension of the time statement of the next Wednesday's meeting?2- Does the procrastination and conscientiousness of people affect the metaphorical comprehension of the time statement of the next Wednesday's meeting in Persian language?3- Does the extroversion of people affect the metaphorical comprehension of the time statement of the next Wednesday's meeting in Persian language?

Linguistics and related studies have had a significant role on human sciences such as translation. Translation as an inter-disciplinary course plays an important role in transferring information and establishing relationship among individuals and nations. We can say translation is a "conscious, planned activity, performed in a controlled manner and aims at establishing communication between different cultural environments" (as cited in Sidiropoulou, 2004, p. 1). Although today translation enjoys many other tools in investigating fields of studies but still linguistics and especially critical discourse analysis (CDA) as one of the branches of linguistics has had a significant role in related studies, such as ideology and power and their covert and overt influences on many disciplines such as translation. CDA finds traces and influence of power and ideology on language, discourse, texts and syntax (Hodge & Kress, 2004, p.134).Today, ideology is considered highly important in a wide range of academic disciplines including cultural and scientific studies, communications, linguistics, pedagogical methods and translation studies. Ideology and its effect on translation have long become a research focus in the field of translation studies. If we advocate the theories on the relationship between translation and ideology, then we would witness many cultural clashes revealing the distance between the source text and the ideological encounters it creates in the translated text.