مجله زبان و ادبیات عربی
سال سیزدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 25، تابستان 1400)

The purpose of this study is to examine the arguments used in Tahaddy verses based on Douglas Walton’s (2008) framework. In this study, we contrast the arguments presented by Tahaddy verses with Douglas Walton's (2008) arguments, and then examine each argument in turn. Muslims believe that God, as the creator of man and the absolute universe, provides the best argument for convincing people, so it seems crucial to examine the arguments in the Qur'an and make them known for their own benefit. Therefore, it is necessary to examine these arguments, since the results of this research might lead to a deeper and more accurate understanding of human logic based on God's knowledge of man. It is known that God asks the polytheists in five verses if they claim this Qur'an is a human word (and the word of the Prophet himself), then bring even one verse like them. These verses are called Tahaddy in the Qur'an. This type of argument seems to be a unique and exclusive type of argument that does not fit into Walton's context due to its idiomatic meaning. Following our review of the Tahaddy verses and comparison with Walton's argument schemas, the study came to the conclusion that the argument used in the Tahaddy did not correspond to any of the sixty cases Walton introduced. Therefore, we introduced Tahaddy as a new argument to this model with a new scheme.

The main goal of imagology is to represent the images of ethnic groups and nations in the literary works of another nation, and travelogues are among the important texts in which the travel writer pictures his views through his travels to other countries. These images, on the one hand, reflect the characteristics of the people of those countries and, on the other hand, reveal the individual and ethnic characteristics of the travel writer. This study sought to identify the images of different types of eastern and western cities of eighth century Iran by identifying and analyzing Ibn Battuta's travelogue, as one of the important works of travel literature in Arabic literature, and to analyze and interpret the reasons for this attitude of Ibn Battuta and to know him to some extent. In this regard, with a descriptive-comparative method, we divided the image of Iranians in the two areas of eastern and western cities into three types of positive, negative and neutral images and based on economic, social, cultural, religious and political characteristics. The this research is important because for the first time the eastern and western cities of eighth century Iran are compared and the view of a Moroccan tourist on Iranians is analyzed. The results show that out of a total of 51 images extracted, the opinion of Ibn Battuta about 80% of the images of Iranians is positive and 20% is negative. The reasons for this positive attitude are rooted in the social and cultural similarities between Iran and Tangier, as well as the well-being of the situation in Iran compared to other countries and territories. Also, in general, we see the better economic situation of the western cities of Iran compared to the eastern cities, which was due to the widespread destruction of the economic infrastructure of the eastern cities of Iran, including markets and caravanserais, caused by the Mongol invasion.

Sociological criticism of literature is one of the new methods of literary criticism, the systematic and scientific formation of which dates back to the beginning of the nineteenth century. According to the experts in the field of sociology of literature, each literary work is an artistic expression of the social events of its time. In this method of criticism, the structure and content of the literary work and its relationship with the conditions of the social and political environment, the worldview and attitude of the author of the work, and how the image of society is reflected in his fictional and artistic world are examined. Postmodernism is also one of the new approaches of the contemporary century, which implies a broad semantic sphere, including art and literature, culture, politics, and economics, and represents a new phase of developments in human history. This research tried to study the socio-political ode of the Fadhihat al-Thalab by Ibrahim Nasrallah, one of the most prominent poets and writers of the Palestinian resistance, and to evaluate the aspects of ideological postmodernism in it. The research method is descriptive and the data analysis method is qualitative. The results showed that although the poet has used the formalities and techniques in terms of formal and technical aspects that make his poetry one of the postmodernist works, but in terms of content and semantics, relying on his ideological attitude, he has strayed from some rules of postmodernism and has used them for spreading his beliefs. In this ode, Ibrahim Nasrallah has tried not to leave the framework of his beliefs while creating a literary work in a new form. Thus, by highlighting the various aspects of American arrogance, he has criticized the imperialist thinking of this country.

The aim of this study was to illustrate a historical and revolutionary linguistic etymology of “Ostura” regarding the same other words as Persian “Estareh”, Hebrew “Estar” and Sami Aramic “Estar”, “Eshtar”, “Athtar”. There are various theories about myth and its function in the literature of nations and its influence in disciplines such as psychology, literature, criticism, religions and history. The study also depicts the connection between myth and Greek mythology and words such as story or history. The present research is different from other researches in terms of the recognition of the beliefs of western scientists about Ostura from a positivism evolutionary historical point of view and Darwinism historical process. In no other researches there is a clear and decisive view on the etymology of the myth, its signification, its true meaning at the beginning, and its place in ancient Iran and especially its connection with similar words. The results of the study show that since history has a close relationship with star and astronomy, Osturas are as well star mappings that represent the existence of resting stars in the very beginning of the history and also a recorder of the appearance of moving stars according to traditional human being. Therefore Ostura is found in a lot of star samples which are sun-born, moon-born or star-born. Moreover, it represents heavenly house of the gods and Ziggurats which are the eternal house of the immortal gods. This indicator is clearly seen in the name of the city which was built by Keyumars, that is, Babel (Bab+el/eel), which means Gates of the gods.

Critical discourse analysis, by involving factors such as ideology and power, has a better linguistic capability than other methods. Laclau and Mouffe's theory is suitable for explaining social and political phenomena due to the introduction of critical discourse analysis to the world of politics and society. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the critical discourse of Ahlam Nasr's poems as a poet of "Islamic state of Iraq and the Levant" (ISIL) using Laclau and Muffe’s theory. The importance of the present study is the need to recognize the ideas of ISIL propagandists to counter their actions in the community. The findings showed that the central signifier of this discourse is the formation of the Islamic Caliphate and jihad, migration, conquest of the world and Sharia are detailed around it. Based on the empty signifier of the early centuries of Islam, Ahlam Nasr has proposed the central signifier of the formation of the caliphate. The floating sign in his poems is an example of the twelve caliphs of Quraysh who introduce him to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi by using the title of “Al-Husseini”. The central symbol and discourse are highlighted in these poems, as well as the concept of security in the government of Bashar al-Assad and nationalist symbols such as language and race. Ahlam Nasr, by comparing “Abu Bakr Baghdadi” to “Ibrahim” (AS) and ISIS to the companions of the Prophet (PBUH) and associating the battle of “Qadisiyah” and the defeat of the Iranians, has metaphorized the discourse of his poems and thus a bright future free of problems. And thus promises a good future, free of current problems, for the people of ISIL-dominated areas. The result showed that the spirit of Salafism and hostility dominates the discourse of ISIL, which is reflected in the poems of Ahlam Nasr and the actions of ISIL.

The story The Merchant of Baghdad is Kamel Kilani’s work (1897-1959), a contemporary Egyptian writer and thinker. In this work, Kilani uses story and narrative elements as a tool for teaching thought and philosophy for children. The main purpose of this descriptive-analytical research was to analyze the elements using ancient stories in Kamel Kilani’s work and applying Matthew Lipman’s components. The philosophy plan for children, founded by Lipman, tries to fulfill the essential needs of young audiences; teaching them how to think, reason, and criticize, asking about the nature and cause of phenomena, teaching how to apply what has been learned at the right time and place, receiving the answer after thinking, and considering and understanding the logical relation between the phenomena by using the story. He prevents the children and young adults from thinking dogmatically and not paying attention to others’ opinions. In the process of the story, they learn to challenge the groundwork and test the reasoning and look for the realities. The findings also indicate that Kilani has tried to design the style and content of this story for teaching creative and critical thinking. The story uses games and conversations. Children have independent characteristics in this story. The judge’s judgments are challenged and the truth is proved by logical reasoning. There seems a kind of alignment between Kilani’s writing style and Lipman’s theory. They both consider the stories as the basis of teaching. They mention and challenge the essential life problems. Children will learn how to analyze, challenge and conceptualize in this story by playing roles.

The semiotic model of Michael Rifater is one of the first semiotic patterns that has specifically studied the literary form of poetry. In this model, much attention is paid to the literary ability of the readership and his reaction to poetry, and poetry reading is done at both exploratory and post-action levels. In the first level, the meaning and superstructure of the text are examined, and in the second level, according to the non-grammatical elements, the deep layers of the text and linguistic implications are analyzed. Resistance and love are the two main themes of Mahmoud Darvish's poetry, and he creates linguistic meanings in these poetic themes by using non-grammatical elements. He hides the main meaning and message beyond the apparent surface of words and consciously delays the understanding of the meaning of poetry. The present study tries to discover the accumulations and descriptive systems of Rita Ahbini's poem in a descriptive-analytical way and relying on the foundations of Michael Rifater's theory of semiotics of poetry, and to recite the structural matrix of the poem to the reader. Explaining the semiotic model of Michael Rifater and explaining the principles of resistance literature in Mahmoud Darvish's poetry and its hidden layers using the semiotic model are the objectives of this research.  Among the results of the reactionary reading of the poem there are several implications of the word "Rita" in Mahmoud Darvish’s works, who mixed it with the concept of homeland and eventually became the symbol of Palestine, and thus put a romantic theme in the service of the concept of resistance. The hypograms of this poem are well reflected in its structural matrix and show a picture of the situation in Palestine and the prospect of resistance