مجله تاملات فلسفی
پیاپی 28 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

have been traditionally paid attention. Many people believe that celestial circumstances play a decisive role in their life events. Scientifically speaking, this is an irrefutable issue, such as the effect of lunar eclipse and solar eclipse on natural phenomena. Unscientifically, however, this has typically manifested as superstitions in people’s lives. Whether celestial circumstances can, in addition to their natural effects, determine value concepts such as good and bad luck of days has even involved philosophers, one of whom is Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. The main question of this research is that which type of philosophical explanation Nasir al-Din al-Tusi has proposed for good and bad luck of days and what his respective Avicennian fundamentals are. This research investigated the good and bad luck of days and their ascription to celestial circumstances from philosophers’ viewpoint, particularly Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. He believed that given the capability of human spirit to affect and be affected by objects, celestial interactions and motions as well as the shape and arrangement of stars and celestial bodies can cause good and bad luck in human life and influence objects on the Earth.

Realizing the motivation of human behavior has been one of the most significant issues of human beings. In this regard, there are two approaches: egoism and altruism; egoism considers the motive of all human benevolent actions to be self-interest. but altruism considers all these kinds of behaviors as merely providing another’s welfare. Daniel Batson and Thomas Nagel are supporters of altruism in different ways. Batson advocated psychological altruism by an empirical approach and offered altruism-empathy hypothesis, while challenging egoism. Existence of motivation for altruism in human nature was proved. The emotional feeling of empathetic concern creates an altruistic motive for the well-being of others.Nagel defended the possibility of the rational motivation of altruism with a Interpretive methodarguing unbiased altruism is a requirement of rationality so it is purely moral and it is an undeniable condition of morality and fundamental principle. Batson's altruism is not necessarily moral, and he tends to put together self- interest and other-interest motives.Descriptive-analytical approach was used to evaluate their views. It has been indicated that their perceptions of altruism and its relationship to morality are distinct, but they can be supporter for each other in rejecting pure egoism and defending pure altruism.

Despite the serious attention of Western philosophers to the language of religion, which occurred after the linguistic turn, among the topics of Islamic theology, independent research has not been formed around the linguistic model of Islamic rational theology. However, the linguistic model used by theologians is a determining factor in explaining, proving and extracting theological issues and problems.In fact, the imaginary and affirmative bases of the theologist about language, meaning, truth, certainty and such things determine the type of him encounter with the text. The main issue of the present study is dedicated to this issue. In a general division, linguistic models are divided into traditional and modern categories. According to the historical evidence and proofs in Islamic theology, the linguistic model of Islamic theology is more in line with the traditional linguistic model.The traditional linguistic model, despite its comparative advantage over a period in the history of theology, is unable to explain many theological issues.

Sabzevari is one of the influential philosophers of the Qajar period. The characteristic of Sabzevari's philosophical method, which has also been influential in his interpretive method, is the accompaniment of transcendent philosophy and the illuminative philosophy. In a change of method, he seeks to present the truth desired by the philosophers (Suhrawardi and Sadra) without any slight inconsistency and conflict, but in consistency and harmony, by esoteric interpretation and methodical interpretation of the views and principles of these two philosophical currents. Therefore, one of the important features of Sabzevari's philosophical interpretations is a methodical combination of the principles of transcendent philosophy and the illuminative philosophy.The problem of research is the study of comprehensive interpretations (ontological and epistemological) based on coherent light and existence principles of water as the first of the purifications and similar interpretations of other purifications (sun and fire). Results of this research Sabzevari's philosophical interpretations of water, while being comprehensive of transcendent philosophy and the illuminative philosophy, also look at the inner rules of Sharia and the science of jurisprudence and are considered as a combination of practical and theoretical philosophy. In this way, and implicitly, the possibility of the potentiality of philosophy (Islamic philosophy) in the general sense as a bridge between contemporary Islamic sciences and humanities is also examined.

In mystical ontology, fixed eternal entities are the key to understanding various topics of destiny, predestination, God’s foreknowledge, etc. Mulla Sadra has used the notion of fixed entities in solving some of his philosophical problems. Acceptance of the theory of fixed entities as predetermined unalterable models of creatures in the divine world evokes a deep inconsistency with the theory of autonomy knowing the true subject of human in Sadra’s system. In the present study, after examining and analyzing the characteristics of the fixed entities, especially the prevailing relations between these general and particular truths and their objective and external persons, it is concluded that in Mulla Sadra’s mystical attitude, although all the actions and deeds of individuals in a given situation are under the nominal guidance and lordship and subject to the requirements of his fixed entity, according to the rule of the formula of “thought to action” over human actions, it is never a denial of acting voluntarily movement.

Abstract"Omniscience" is an attributes of classical theism that affects how it is understood in other doctrines of classical theology, such as immutability, God's Free Will, and man's Free Will. Swinburne, the contemporary English philosopher of religion, argues that the classical notion of Omniscience is not coherent, but incompatible with human free will, God's free will, the first- person propositions, the Tense propositions, and ultimately the scripture; therefore, he has gone beyond the classical notion of "Omniscience" and has provided a more modified explanation of this concept.He believes that because the knowledge of God is limited or because of logical rules; Or because of plans that God has not yet decided; Or God Himself has limited His knowledge, He does not diminish His worship. But Swinburne's modified of Omniscient theory does not seem to be compatible with other attributes of God, such as creative. It can be said that Swinburne has erred in stating that knowledge is limited to Propositional knowledge and considers knowledge of God to be of that type; because in addition to Propositional knowledge, intuitive knowledge can be obtained and God's knowledge can be considered as such. Because Swinburne considers God to be temporal; When God has imposed this restriction on himself, there can be no preference to a specific time.

Explaining how the soul and body relate is one of the issues that arises after accepting the duality of the two. One type of relationship between the soul and the body is the acceptance of causality between the two and the impact between them. Mulla Sadra considers the body as the material cause of the soul and then refers to the interaction of the soul and the body; While Foster only deals with the second aspect. Foster, a follower of Cartesian dualism, offers a way for the problem of casual pairing and explains how a mind and a body are united. This problem of casual pairing of a specific soul to a specific body is eliminated in Sadra's philosophy with principles of corporal contingency and the unity of soul and body and this is the effectiveness of Sadra's view. According to Sadra, soul and body are two sides of the same being; but Foster, introduces psychophysical arrangement for the unity of them. The way of this connection in Sadra's philosophy leads to a kind of unity that can better explain the interaction of them; but that will remain unanswered for Foster. Mulla Sadra explores the problem ontologically, and Foster suffices with an epistemological explanation. Examining the effectiveness of the solutions presented by them is one of the aims of this article.

One of the most important reasons for animal rights advocates and the need to change their inappropriate behavior is the "ability to understand pain" in animals. Peter Singer is one of the main defenders of this argument and by emphasizing the need to pay equal attention to animals and humans, he challenges any use of animals, including eating meat, laboratory research, and industrial animal husbandry. By denying the superiority of man over the animal, he considers all the exploits of the animal to be morally incorrect, and by criticizing the view of religions in this regard, introduces it as a precondition for the violation of animal rights. In this article, while reviewing and criticizing this argument and emphasizing the need to respect the privacy of animals and human responsibility towards them, it is stated that Due to the special place of man in the universe and his existential differences with animals, his purposeful and responsible use of animals is morally permissible, which is also confirmed by a look at the teachings of religions. Considering the relationship between suffering and science and consciousness, the value of human beings, the same criterion of fetus and animal, and the contradiction in the claim are among the criticisms that can be leveled at Singer.

This paper is a research into different versions and implications of normative uncertainty. To do so, I provide a brief account of uncertainty in ontological, epistemological, social, and psychological domains, and drawing on the method of descriptive-analytic research, I roughly consider the impact of uncertainties on normative ethics. Given the uncertainty, real consequences of events, knowledge of events and their ramifications, constancy of the states of moral agents, and social reactions are not determinate, and the existence of constant moral laws is dubious. On the one hand, moral criteria are not sufficient for decisions in the normative domain, and on the other hand, normative uncertainly has specific implications along with the subjectivist or objectivist reading. Given moral uncertainty and its combination with other uncertainties, the decision-making process becomes more complicated, since under such circumstances the moral agent does not face the right/wrong or the permissible/impermissible option. Rather, she might face maximally right and minimally wrong options. Moreover, in acting upon the maximal alternative, blaming the moral agent leads to the violation of morality.

The dominant interpretation about the relation between metaphysics and morality in Aristotle’s thought is the separative interpretation. According to this understanding, Aristotle divides the piratical from the theoretical reason/ wisdom- hence a radical historical disassociation between metaphysics and morality. This division of the theoretical/ practical has brought about some crucial implications in the history of philosophy. During the recent decades, some philosophers have demonstrated the dangerous implications of this separation for the human world and criticized Aristotle for establishing this division. In this article, I argue that the separative interpretation of Aristotle is not based on an accurate understanding of his texts. A close study in his writings in different fields would unravel that the birth of metaphysics is joined to the birth of morality from his viewpoint. The possibility of metaphysics is based on an encounter with the other and being toward the other. Analyzing the different functions of ‘nous’ in the formation of metaphysics, I will discuss that nous underlies the possibility and objectivity of (Aristotelian) metaphysics and the unity of metaphysics with morality and practice. Discovering the unity within the strangeness of the other is the situation in which metaphysics begins. This situation is based on the both ontological and epistemological functions of nous. According to this understanding, the separative interpretation of Aristotle’s metaphysics is to be seriously doubted.

Natural theology has entered a new phase in the contemporary period and empirical evidence or explanatory gaps of the new natural sciences take a significant role in this project. On the other hand, Theism has been wounded by a strategy in which the epistemological unknowns were argued in favour of the existence of God (God of the Gaps). In this article, the problems faced by the strategy of the god of the gaps and their proposed solutions are reviewed, and accordingly, two points have been declared: 1) Separation of boundary or limit questions from scientific questions are recognized and accepted, then a criterion is provided for this distinction based on the definition of Muslim philosophers for philosophical statements. 2) The activity of supernatural agents, including God, is comprehensively portrayed from the perspective of Islamic wisdom, and based on it, both the contemporary natural theology and its rival project (naturalism) have been rejected.

Traditionalism is one of the currents that is directly opposed to modernist beliefs. Throughout the history of thought, the view of traditionalists has become a coherent system of thought. One of the fields that has a special place in this idea is the theory of art and beauty. One of the concepts that are very important in understanding the traditionalist theory of the perception of art and beauty is the understanding of the place of "intellect" in the creating and understanding traditional art by the artist and the audience. Explaining and examining the traditionalists' definition of intellect and how it works in creating and understanding traditional art is essential for understanding how transmitting tradition. In this study, using the method of document collection and qualitative analysis, after examining the main concepts such as tradition, traditional art, and intellect as a theoretical framework, the place of intellect in creating and understanding traditional art in traditionalists' view is examined and criticized. This study shows that the traditionalists' views are problematic on issues such as the insufficient definition of intellect, uncertainty of the function and perceived matter of intellect, unacceptable assumptions for all, getting into esoteric pluralism, explanation of exaggerated mystical personality for artist and audience, Improper generalization and bias in some cases. It also has the advantage of presenting a theory of art with other cultural contexts and paving the way for a different mystical interpretation of art.

Some thinkers believe that moral value has its own unique identity and cannot be reduced to nonmoral things. By expressing such an idea, George Moore sees the consequence of this unique nature of moral value in that it cannot be studied in the natural sciences, including psychology, and therefore calls it "nonnatural". But later he sees calling moral value nonnatural for this reason problematic and tries to explain its being nonnatural in other ways. He acknowledges the ambiguity in this issue. This ambiguity has continued since Moore, and there has always been debate over the distinction between natural and unnatural and how unnatural moral value is. In this article, an attempt has been made to reveal the ambiguities in this field by describing and analyzing the discussions that have taken place in this field. Finally, it is concluded that, given the existing ambiguities, it is better to abandon the titles "nonnatural" and "nonnaturalism" and instead use positive titles to express our position about the Autonomy of moral value and its Irreducibility

Undoubtedly, Kant was interested in philosophy of law, even before proposing his critical philosophy. But, he delivered his fully-fledged philosophy of right in “Metaphysics of Morals”. Regarding the review and analysis of the book, probably the most complicated issue discussed by Kant specialists is the relation between right and morality. The structure of the book, some of its ambiguous passages and Kant’s prior positions about philosophy of morals in “Critique of Practical Reason” and “Groundwork of Metaphysics of Morals” have mystified the real idea of Kant as for this relation. According to the belief that the “strict right” implicates the (moral) ought or not, one can categorize Kant specialists into two main groups: defendants of dependence or believers on independence doctrine. The first school of thought is the more popular and more conforming to the structure of “Metaphysics of Morals”. In order to justify the doctrine, Höffe has proposed the general categorical imperative, Guyer and Kersting freedom and Pauer-Studer the kingdom of ends formula as the general foundation of Kant’s moral philosophy which should include both domains of ethics and Law. Moreover, Sorin Baiasu has sought to refute Willaschek’s critiques, as the most powerful one on the doctrine of dependence, by distinguishing between subjective and objective validity of legal norms. Despite all these efforts, it does not seem that the doctrine is fully successful. The essay is designed to make the Persian speaking community familiar with these efforts.