Water Productivity Journal
Volume:2 Issue: 2, Spring 2022

Monsoon rains in August 1917 in Bangladesh affected close to 6.9 million people in Bangladesh. Rising waters began on August 11 and by August 15, one third of the country was submerged.The floods killed at least 115 people and forced close to 200,000 people from their homes. In some parts of the country, up to 80% of sanitation and water facilities were affected. Many shelter centres lacked the ability to provide adequate food, water, hygiene and protection, putting children, adolescent girls and women at risk. Most of the affected people were farm labourers, relying on agriculture to meet their basic needs. The extent of the disaster increased the risks of serious disease outbreaks; children dropping out of school; and violence, neglect, abuse and exploitation of children and women.Pre-monsoon (March-May) flash flood in the northeast Haor region of Bangladesh has drawn much attention due to its early onset, high frequency, and adverse impact on the Boro crop. To understand its past changes and future occurrences, a trend analysis is carried out on the observed 3 - hourly water level data and daily rainfall data of the Haor region using the Mann-Kendall test, Trend-Free Pre-Whitening test, and Sens slope estimator. This study was conducted in the north-eastern region of Bangladesh covers approximately 24,500 km2, bounded by the international border with India to the north and east, the Old Brahmaputra River to the west, and the Nasirnagar to Madhabpur and Meghna River to the south. This region is comprised of the floodplains of the Meghna River and its tributaries. The larger portion of this region is the Haor basin and is characterized by numerous large, deeply flooded depressions.The Mann Kendall Trend Test is used to analyze data collected over time for consistently increasing or decreasing trends (monotonic) in Y values. It is a non-parametric test, which means it works for all distributions, but your data should have no serial correlation. If your data does follow a normal distribution, you can run simple linear regression instead. The test can be used to find trends for as few as four samples. However, with only a few data points, the test has a high probability of not finding a trend when one would be present if more points were provided. The more data points you have the more likely the test is going to find a true trend (as opposed to one found by chance). The minimum number of recommended measurements is therefore at least 8 to 10. Later, statistical trend analysis is conducted using the Mann-Kendall test and Sen’s slope. However, Lag-1 autocorrelation was determined before statistical trend analysis. The stations having no autocorrelation were directly investigated by the MK test, whereas the stations showing significant autocorrelation were analyzed through TFPWMK. Here, TFPWMK was preferred to PWMK because PWMK deals with the influence of serial correlation on the MK test but does not address the interaction between a trend and autocorrelation process. There can be a case where a trend exists in a time series even though the time series does not comprise an autocorrelation process, and in such a situation, the use of PWMK can be erroneous. Although trend analysis can be extremely helpful in many applications—from climate change to sociological analysis—it’s important to keep in mind that it is not foolproof. In particular:All data (unless gathered through a population census) is liable to sampling error. The extent of this problem will increase when coarse sampling methods (e.g. convenience sampling) are used. Data is likely subject to measurement error; random, systematic, or external; trends in this error may be mistaken as trends in the actual data. “Phantom”, short term trends exist even in the most random of number sequences, so trends should be followed out as long as possible. Also, finding no trend may mean there is no trend, but it may just as likely mean that your data is insufficient to illuminate a trend which does in fact exist.A statistically significant increasing trend is found for the relative water level. The trend in rainfall is increasing, though it is not statistically significant. From the observed record, the peak of the flash floods is found to be arriving early in late March-early April (instead of late April-early May), coinciding with the harvesting period of the Boro crop. The early arrival of the flash flood can cause catastrophic damage to the Boro crop in future flash floods. None of the current Boro varieties BRRI dhan28, BRRI 36, BRRI dhan69, BRRI dhan88 are safer to save Boro from early flash floods experienced in recent years. To escape the Boro crop from an early flash flood, Boro varieties with a shorter growth duration should be introduced. This helps crop productivity.

The faults and fractures of the granite are, according to their position in relation to the plane of deformation, hypothetically interpreted as tension and shear faults. The faults in shear position are supposed to be tight and have very little groundwater. The tension faults, on the other hand, are supposed to be open and to be capable of a high yield of groundwate. The electrical conductivities of rocks and soils are highly dependent of the water saturation. Variations in electrical resistivity are monitored by time lapse electrical resistivity tomography (TLERT) during a long duration pumping test.Rocks such as granite and schist are generally poor aquifers because they have a very low porosity. However, if these rocks are highly fractured, they make good aquifers. A well is a hole drilled into the ground to penetrate an aquifer. Normally such water must be pumped to the surface.

Climate of South India is mostly tropical. The study of climate is very important from many aspects. It is predominantly important for crops, tours, vegetation etc. Henceforth necessary to understand the working and eating habits, also. In fact the study of climate is correlated to Topography and Temperature of the region. In fact the region has a tropical climate and depends on monsoons for rainfall. This region includes Karnataka, inland Tamil Nadu and western Andhra Pradesh.Most importantly it gets between 400 and 750 millimetres (15.7 and 29.5 in) of rainfall annually . The summers are hot and dry . But the winters are cool with temperatures around 20-24°C (68-75°F).This experiment is carried out in the Experimental Hydrogeological Park (EHP) located in Choutuppal, 45 km south-east of Hyderabad. Vadose zone of EHP comprises an uppermost thin layer of red soil (<1m), sandy regolith (1m-3m), saprolite (3m-15m), and then the fissured granite. The pumping test lasts for 5 days and the piezometric variations are between 13 m and 18 m during pumping in CH03 borehole. This fissured granite is characterized by an important horizontal fracture density controlling the flow. An East West profile was laid with 48 electrodes and 3 m spacing interval. CH03, pumping well, was in the center of the profile covering 8 observation wells in both directions. 27 time-lapse datasets were inverted using Res2Dinv adopting least square inversions. The inverted resistivity datasets seem to be correlated with weathered profile and the variations of resistivity may be correlated with variation of hydraulic head. The variations of resistivity are more important close to CH03 and decreases with distance away from it. This behavior is coherent with the depression cone created by the pumping. Moreover, resistivity variations in the vadose zone highlight an influence of the pumping on the water content evolution of this zone. The observed heterogeneous response seems to be correlated with the geological media heterogeneity. TLERT appears to be a powerful tool to follow dynamic behavior of both saturated level and vadose zone for a given event. Grounwater punping monitoring helps to the water content evolution and groundwater productivity.

The different distribution pattern of resistivity during and after the pumping are noticed. There is no occurrence of rainfall event during the experiment and the watershed. However, there is a temporary storage tank towards the eastern end of the profile, constructed for storing the water. This tank has no effect on the percolation, but the saturation effect is observed the surficial level. A very sharp breakup is seen after almost 40hr of pumping. This sharp boundary or may be fracture is strongly observed upto 20m depth.

Subsurface hydrology of the granitic terrene is studied, monitored and analyzed by a simpler approach of TLERT. The inverted resistivity datasets successfully correlates with the hydraulic head data measured at the water table at the same timings. This research, intended to examine the validity of time-lapse electrical imaging has been extremely successful, showing that repeat measurements of resistivity recorded at the surface can accurately delineate changes in saturation in the subsurface. The observed heterogeneous response seems to be correlated with the geological media heterogeneity. The precise location of a fracture can be determined with this non-invasive and quick method in the presence of significant vertical flow. Vadose zone connectivity in terms of pathways in both horizontal as well as vertical directions. It helps in reducing the uncertainty in the model parameters.

In this study, irrigation evaluation of different cultivars of Rapeseed and barley in 2017-2018 crop year was performed in Sharifabad farm of Qamroud section of Qom. The result led to optimization of cultivation and improved water productivity is in two products, Brassica napus and barley. The Groundwater EC of this farm is salty. Due to the salinity tolerance threshold of barley, barley was predicted without yield reduction. But in canola crop due to less tolerance to salinity, crop reduction was predicted. During one crop season, Brassica napus was cultivated in eleven cultivars by irrigation method, the planting date started from October 26 to October 17, In tape irrigation, it was irrigated between 10 and 13 times. The objectives of this study were a case comparison between different cultivars of Brassica napus, both foreign and domestic, resistance of cultivars to cold and water consumption and productivity and yield and most importantly a comparison between irrigation methods in terms of water consumption and water efficiency. Meanwhile, Hayola Shirazi cultivar had the highest yield among all cultivars in the type irrigation system with the lowest water consumption.

This climate type is characterized by extremely variable temperature conditions, with annual means decreasing and annual ranges increasing poleward, and relatively little precipitation. This climate is typically located deep within the interiors of continents and is contiguous with the tropical desert climates of North and South America and of central Asia. This region type owes its origins to locations deep within continental interiors, far from the windward coasts and sources of moist, maritime air. Remoteness from sources of water vapor is enhanced in some regions by mountain barriers upwind.The average amount of precipitation for the year in Qom is 12.1" (307.3mm). The month with the most precipitation on average is December with 1.9" (48.3mm) of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is June with an average of 0.1" (2.5mm). There are an average of 71.3 days of precipitation, with the most precipitation occurring in March with 10.5 days and the least precipitation occurring in July with 1.5 days. This research was done in the cropping year of 2018-2019 in one of the endowed lands of the holy threshold of Hazrat Fatemeh Al-Masoomeh located in the northeast of Qom province, Qomrud district. The objective of this study was to compare the water productivity and irrigation management between the two methods of type irrigation and surface irrigation and to compare different rapaseed and barley cultivars at salinity above 8000µmhos/cm.Rapeseed, (Brassica napus var. napus), is a winter or spring annual oil crop in the Brassica family. It is also known as rape and oilseed rape. Archaeological evidence dates barley cultivation to 5000 BCE in Egypt, 2350 BCE in Mesopotamia, 3000 BCE in northwestern Europe, and 1500 BCE in China. Barley was the chief bread plant of the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans and of much of Europe through the 16th century. Genetic studies suggest that Tibet was an additional, independent centre of domestication for cultivated barley.

Water productiviy is about 0.77kg/m3 was calculated in the type irrigation method with water efficiency of 0.66kg/m3 compared to gravity irrigation (surface) which has a productivity of 0.20kg/m3. In hydroflow irrigation, it performed better than the previous two methods, but consumed more water (about 34.2%) than type irrigation. Regarding barley, it was cultivated in three cultivars and two types of irrigation methods, Fajr 30 cultivar increases water productivity by 2.2 by irrigating the type.

The most important result of this farm operation was that the water efficiency of type irrigation in repseed is more than 2.3 times that of flood irrigation. On the other hand, strip surface irrigation with hydroflume has a higher performance than the other two methods. On the other hand, Hayola Shirazi cultivar consumed about 14.3% less water and was cultivated in terms of planting time about 15 days after the first planting. Hayola Shirazi cultivar has 9% higher yield than the average canola and has the highest yield after Hayola Qom cultivar. But it has been consumed 15% less water than Hiola Qom cultivar. Therefore, due to the quality of water with a salinity of more than 8000 micro mhos per centimeter, local type irrigation for both barley and canola crops has had more than the highest water productivity and efficiency. Barley yield was obtained by irrigating more than ten tons, which is higher than the national average.

Stormwater management is the effort to reduce runoff of rainwater ormelted snow into streets, lawns and other sites and the improvement ofwater quality, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). When stormwater is absorbed into the soil, it is filtered andultimately replenishes aquifers or flows into streams and rivers. However, when heavy rainwater hits, ground saturated by water createsexcess moisture that runs across the surface and into storm sewers androad ditches. Thiswater often carries debris, chemicals, bacteria, eroded soil, and other pollutants, and carries them into streams, rivers, lakes, or wetlands. In urban and developed areas, impervious surfaces such as pavement androofs prevent precipitation from naturally soaking into the ground. Instead, water runs rapidly into storm drains, sewer systems anddrainage ditches and can cause flooding, erosion, turbidity (ormuddiness), storm and sanitary sewer system overflow, andinfrastructure damage. However, stormwater design and “greeninfrastructure” capture and reuse stormwater to maintain or restorenatural hydrologies. Detaining stormwater and removing pollutants is the primary purpose ofstormwater management. Pervious Surfaces that are porous and allowrainfall and snowmelt to soak into the soil, Gray infrastructure, suchas culverts, gutters, storm sewers, conventional piped drainage, andBlue/Green infrastructure that protect, restore, or mimic the naturalwater cycle, all play a part in stormwater management.In stormwater management systems, a swale is one of the flow control-at-source facilities. The application of swale with a subdrainage channel in Malaysia urban areas is new and promising to control urban flash floods. Rainfall-runoff infiltrate to the subdrainage can be stored and become proper irrigation sources and increase the benefits of water productivity due to maximize the income and profits either in agricultural yield or as non-portable water supply. The Manning Equation is the most commonly used equation to analyze open channel flows. It is a semi-empirical equation for simulating water flows in channels and culverts where the water is open to the atmosphere, i.e. not flowing under pressure, and was first presented in 1889 by Robert Manning. The channel can be any shape - circular, rectangular, triangular, etc. The units in the Manning equation appear to be inconsistent. The Manning Equation was developed for uniform steady state flow. For uniform steady flows, the energy gradeline = the slope of the water surface = the slope of the bottom of the channel. Manning n varies with the roughness of the pipe, culvert, or channel. The higher the n, the rougher the material. This study was done in REDAC’s Hydraulic Laboratory, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, and the data have been used to validate the suggested Manning equations. By using flow meter and measuring tape, velocity and flow depth of each case (GFO, GPO2 and GPO4) with different slopes at M2, M3 and M4 were recorded. The measurements of the velocity and flow depth have been taken three times at each location. Data recorded have been use as input to calculate flow. All data were analysed by using Microsoft Excel 2013. Observed flow rates gained in this study, were used to validate Manning’s (n) equation that developed through the previous study that recommended to be used in designing subdrainage channel. The performance of flow capacity in a single module of the swale subdrainage channel is also discussed. An experimental setup was carried out in a six-meter flume by using the River Engineering and Urban Drainage Research Centre (REDAC) module as a subdrainage channel or ecological subsurface module. These physical model test runs were conducted to evaluate the efficiency of hydraulic capacity due to backwater or blockage effects at the end of the channel. Three gate scenarios were applied to represent the blockage. Manning roughness coefficient influenced inversely proportionate by flow capacity with maximum value is 0.020. It shown in the subdrainage module, the main parameter that controls the flow attenuation is module roughness itself. Flash flood issues in the urban area become tremendously crucial and flow attenuation is believed may tackle the issue. By slowing down the flow to the downstream area, a high infiltration rate would have occurred and implementation of a subdrainage channel with a single module that is located underneath the swales can accelerate the infiltration process consequently slow down the upstream flow to reach the downstream area. It is concluded that the developed equation for Manning’s prediction has been validated through a good and significant agreement between predicted and observed results with an R2 value of 0.77.

Iran is one of the countries in the world that needs water resources planning. In this research, the maximum and minimum temperatures in seven meteorological stations are analyzed and predicted. Time series analysis is a specific way of analyzing a sequence of data points collected over an interval of time. In time series analysis, analysts recorddata points at consistent intervals over a set period of time rather than just recordingthe data points intermittently or randomly. The purpose of this study is to use the time series method in predicting the maximum and minimum temperatures in the Zayandehrud basin, Isfahan, Iran.

The Zayandeh Rud River is the main supplier for drinking water to a population of over 4.5 million in the three provinces of Isfahan, Yazd, and Charmahal-Bakhtiari. It provides agricultural water for over 200,000 hectares, supplies water to several large industries, and is and the hub of tourism in the central plateau of Iran. This river used to have significant flow all year long, but today runs dry due to water extraction before reaching the city of Isfahan. Isfahan Province is located in the center of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The total area of the Isfahan province is 106179 square kilometers, approximately 6.25 percent of the total Iran area. The city lies in the lush Zayandeh Roud River plain of foothills of the Zagros Mountains Range. Isfahan is about 1580 meters high from the sea level. It has a mild climate. ZayandehRud River is the main source and element of the development and beauty of Isfahan. The river rises from the eastern slopes of the Zagros Mountain range. The city is located in the lush plain of the river ZayandehRud, at the foot of the Zagros mountains. Situated at 1.590 meters above sea level on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains, Isfahan has a dry climate (Köppen BWk). Record Periods include 7 days, 15 days, 30 days, seasonal and daily time steps. The output data were demonstrated by box Diagram, Normal and Grubs Beck. The modeling was performed by examining the autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation diagrams and Akaike, Schwartz and Hanan Quinn criterias. Then normality was test by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Jarque Bera tests. Durbin Watson and Pert Manto tests were used to check the accuracy of the model. The trend and homogeneity are analysed using MATLAB and the stationery and modeling are done using Minitab, Eviews software.

Maximum temperature (meteorological parameter) intervals of 7 days, 15 days, 30 days, seasonal, and daily, and as the number of data decreases, the amount of error increases, the data interval had an increasing trend in daily period. In the R2 criteria, all of the stations were above 0.7, and in terms of correctness, the model of Kabutarabad station had a better answer than all of the other stations. For this reason, this station was selected. In terms of the test that used for the normality of all of the stations, the results were similar, so that the daily time interval was skewness and kurtosis and the intervals of 7, 15 and 30 days and seasonal were examined for Kolmogorov Smirnov and Jarque bera tests. The percentage error was below than 20%. The models obtained for the intervals were as follows: for the 15 and 30 days intervals of Sarima and for the 7 days, seasonal and daily intervals of Arima.

For validation in the series with daily and 7days time intervals, 5% of data were considered, in 15days and 30days 10% of data, and seasonal 20% of data were considered. Trend was checked by Mann Kendall method and was observed only in daily time interval. The method of estimating the parameters is calculated from the least squares method. Also in modeling the maximum and minimum temperatures, mainly SARIMA model was fitted in 15days and 30days period and ARIMA in 7days and daily period and seasonal period. R2 was higher than 0.7 and the average squares error and error percentage was below 20%.The limitations of the project were as follows: One of the hypotheses was that the impact of artificial and human factors on the study data was negligible and the length of the period used is considered as a sample of the total statistical population of that station. It is recommended that firstly the effect of climate change on the prediction of results would be studied, secondly using wavelet in time series analysis, thirdly using and comparing ARCH and GARCH time series models.The minimum and maximum temperature has a large impact on evapotranspiration and farmland water consumption. Using time series analysis, both minimum and maximum temperatures could be predicted. Therefore, water consumption could be estimated for future crop management and having an efficient water productivity.

Drought is a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period. It is a part of normal climate variability in many climate zones. The duration of droughts varies widely. Drought can develop quickly and last only for a matter of weeks, exacerbated by extreme heat and/or wind, but more commonly drought can persist for months or years. Decreased rainfall and severe fluctuations in rainfall are factors that have exacerbated the water crisis in recent years, as well as numerous droughts. Drought is one of the most important natural disasters that is called lack of rainfall in a long period Drought is a natural phenomenon that has a significant impact on Human life exists and its temporal and spatial variations can be effective in dealing with the effects of this phenomenon. The purpose of this study was to investigate the drought process using SPI and Mann-Kendal test as well as meteorological drought spatial variations in Lorestan province using GIS.

Drought is often grouped into four basic types: 1) meteorological or climatological, 2) agricultural, 3) hydrological, and 4) socioeconomic. Meteorological and climatological drought is defined in terms of the magnitude of a precipitation shortfall and the duration of this shortfall event. Lorestan province with an area of 28064 km in western Iran is located between 46 degrees and 51 minutes to 50 degrees and 3 minutes’ east longitude of the Greenwich meridian and 32 degree and 37 minutes and 34 degrees and 22 minutes north latitude of the equator.The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was developed to determine drought and wetness at each station, and the values obtained (SPI) indicate different intensities of drought in an area. The Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) is a relatively new drought index based only on precipitation. It's an index based on the probability of precipitation for any time scale. Some processes are rapidly affected by atmospheric behavior, such as dry land agriculture, and the relevant time scale is a month or two.

Using SPI index, rainfall data of 9 synoptic stations and 23 rain gauging stations in the statistical period (1998-2018) were analyzed at the provincial level. The Mann-Kendal test was used to examine the trend of annual changes and the appropriate interpolation method was used to prepare zoning maps using the information of all 32 stations. The Mann-Kendal test is used to check the time trend for each set of data. This test is based on non-parametric linear regression logic. In this study, for interpolation, the methods of inverse distance weighting, Global polynomials, local polynomials, radial basis functions and kriging were investigated and the most accurate method was selected.Mann-Kendal test results showed that the trend of drought index changes of Alashtar at the 95% probability level was significant and increasing and the rest of cities lacked Are meaningful. The results indicate that according to the value classification scale (SPI), Aligudarz city was very dry in 1999 and 2008, with moderate humidity in 2017 and moderate drought in 2000 and in the other years has been in normal condition. The most suitable method was Kriging method for zoning drought in the province. For this purpose, the years 2012, 2016 and 2018 were designated as representative of the dry, wet and normal years, respectively. According to the zoning maps mentioned in three years, in the year 2012 districts west and south have been subjected to severe drought, in the northern part of the province in the wet period in the year 2016, and in the eastern part of the province in the year 2018 have been most exposed to drought. Also, considering the number of droughts in different years for the selected stations, the driest station, Kohdasht station and the humidest station, Nourabad station was introduced.

Based on result of study, the driest station can be introduced as Koohdasht and the wettest station can be introduced as Noorabad. According to the results of this study and the occurrence of various droughts in different parts of the province, to deal with the effects of this phenomenon, proper planning of water resources and insurance of agricultural products, especially in the city of Koohdasht, which more than other parts of the province with Drought has been suggested.