فصلنامه نگره
پیاپی 63 (پاییز 1401)

Miracle as a divine sign and proof is a clear and rightful indication to show the prophecy and its connection with God. The miracles of the prophets are among the religious topics and part of Qur'anic topics that have been discussed in several chapters. In the meantime, the miracle of coldness and healing of fire for prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) is one of the cases that has been repeatedly mentioned in religious and historical texts and has been considered by painters and kings and rulers of their time in different periods of Iranian art throughout the Islamic period. The present study aims to determine the degree of conformity of the theme and content of the narrative of the miracle of coldness and healing of fire for prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) with images of his miracles. These images are studied in terms of visual elements with Qur'anic narratives. In addition, identifying images that are more consistent with the narratives of the Holy Qur'an is another goal of this study. In fact, this article, while introducing various left images that depict the miracle of cooling and healing of fire for prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him), based on the examples of Iranian painting, and matching the drawings with the Qur'anic narrative and analyzing their visual elements, examines the degree of correspondence of the drawings with the theme of the miracle of coldness and healing of the fire for prophet Ibrahim (Peace be upon him) with the narratives of the Holy Qur'an and interpretive texts to determine to what extent these painters had remained faithful to its main narrative, the Holy Qur'an, in expressing the image of the miracle. This research also seeks to determine what the cultural and artistic discourse of that period had to do with the images of the miracle of coldness and healing of fire for Ibrahim. To achieve this, first the definition of a miracle is presented with reference to the Holy Qur'an and hadiths and commentaries. This is done because the word “miracle” has several instances and is used by its users, which in this article is based on the Holy Qur'an and interpretive texts, and then it is followed by the introduction of drawings. The miracle of coldness and healing of fire for Ibrahim, the visual narrative and their content study are discussed subsequently. This research has been done by descriptive, comparative and analytical methods and information and study samples have been collected using library and internet resources. By studying and analyzing the content of these drawings, it can be seen that the miracle by prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) has been depicted according to the pictorial elements used in the drawings, the narrative and content of the studied drawings, sometimes as per Qur'an and interpretive texts, while sometimes they have occasional differences with interpretive texts. In general, the place of the meanings of the miracle of coldness and healing of fire for prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) in Iranian painting based on Qur'anic verses and interpretive texts can be divided into two groups: drawings that are completely consistent with the text of the Qur'an and interpretive texts, and illustrations and drawings that are somewhat consistent with Qur'anic verses and interpretive texts. By comparing the narratives and interpretations of the Qur'an with the drawings of Ibrahim's miracle, it was determined that the drawings of the version of the stories of the prophets in the Safavid period are more compatible with the Qur'anic narratives than other drawings. In other words, the images of the stories of the prophets are depicted closer to the text of the Qur'an and interpretive texts. In addition, painters have created visual elements in their paintings according to their insights and perceptions, and the rulers have used them to legitimize their rule. In other words, the interest and tendency of the rulers of the time led to the creation of works with a religious theme. By showing their connection with the prophets of God, they took steps to legitimize the claim of monarchy and the promotion of the proclamation of religion, and thus to increase their political power by gaining cultural prestige. They used art in the direction of their desires, and in this way, by doing so and paying attention to religious issues, they introduced themselves as the continuation of the path of God's messengers and gave legitimacy to their rule. They used religious imagery to reflect their ideas and thoughts, and since these images were influenced by the tastes of kings and the prevailing moral and religious principles, increased their prestige and power among the people. Thus, the prevailing cultural and artistic insight in each period has influenced the images of the miracle of coldness and healing of fire for prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him).

Decorative Kufic is one of the most archaic scripts utilized in the architectural inscriptions of Islamic buildings. Elegance and beauty of the decorative Kufic script is well-documented in Persian inscriptions, esp. Heydarieh and Jame (Congregation) mosques in Qazvin, both dating back to Seljuk dynasty. The present study aims to identify and extract all letters found in these inscriptions and to investigate their decorative and structural features, as well as any similarities or differences. We try to answer the following questions: How are written, geometric or vegetal decorative uses of the Kufic script similar or different in these two inscriptions? Have structure and design of Kufic inscriptions in Heydarieh and Jame mosques affected one another? The present study is descriptive-analytic, but it is laboratory-based as well, and it is aided by field observations. The findings indicate that there are some common features in written structure and vegetal decorations of the inscriptions. Heydarieh mosque was built a few years later than Jame mosque, and consequently some influences can be traced in its inscriptions. In Heydarieh’s inscription, geometric designs as well as written and vegetal decorations are employed. It excels in decoration, utilizing a new structure with slant letters, and geometric and connective knots which demonstrates the advances in the structure of the Persian Kufic script. Due to the explanatory power manifested in the structure of these two buildings, a sort of strength, coherence and balance is felt in the architectural space of these buildings. These prominent features can be employed by graphic designers to devise new letters and patterns. The stucco Kufic inscriptions of these monuments (Heydarieh and Jame mosques) date back to Seljuk dynasty, and their basic components and structural features can be categorized into three sections: a) written b) geometric, and c) vegetal. If you examine and compare the letters of both inscriptions in vertical, horizontal, and diagonal axes- as well as round, curved, and angled movements of letters in harmony with geometric designs- you will notice that all letters are in a geometric mold. The letter designing standards are precisely and creatively observed. This reminds us of the skill of ancient letter designers or calligraphers whose precious heritage may guide the modern letter designers. As well as straight and angled lines, curved and ornamental features are also evident in these inscriptions. For instance, the Kufic letter Ain (ع) in both inscriptions follows a circular structure and format which creates main and virtual grids with the base line; quite similar to modern letter designs such as monogram and logotype. Since decorative Kufic script enjoys a geometric structure, the artists were simultaneously able to precisely and proportionately expand circles and angles in all directions of the inscription. Kufic scripts are highly applicable on different surfaces, using different materials and techniques. The stuccos in Heydarieh and Jame mosques employ foliated Kufic script, with a beautiful and varied structure, on a vegetal background in which all letters and words end in decorative and arabesque leaves. Observing a definite structure is a prerequisite for any work of art which is subjected to specific principles and rules. One of the main constituents of inscriptions is simultaneous incorporation of written, geometric and vegetal decoration, but there are other components which should also be taken into account including: placement, ratio and relation of the inscription to the building space, and the location of religious and non-religious architecture in the urban space which emphasize the status of inscriptions among the Muslims. It can be noted that in Seljuk dynasty, inscription makers -as calligraphy artists and letter designing specialists- felt free to introduce structural and aesthetical innovations to Kufic inscriptions. After examining the letters of these two precious inscriptions, it can be concluded that in order to create a set of letters, the artists or calligraphers of any historical period are obliged to create a geometrical mold in which the thickness of letters in two fonts (thick, and slender) are observed. Even the combination of two structures with different angles and curvature can lead to designing innovative letters and decorative signs. All the above factors depend on the structural rules, execution limitations, and precise proportions regarding the base line, as well as creating a virtual grid of horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines.

While doing research in Islamic art, especially decorative art, we face alphabetic samples that despite the similarity to the overall structure of alphabetic text cannot be read. Although these shapes have been drawn in the frame of alphabet of the text, they do not convey a meaning to be read. These figures, which are similar to the inscriptions, have been represented in the present study as quasi -writing. Faced with these examples, what has convinced the audience to accept – or doubt – them as writing, is déjà vu and similarity between the examples and the structure of letters in the Islamic alphabet. This research has been conducted with the aim of introducing this category of quasi-literature in the Islamic Arts. As a result, quasi-documents are divided into two groups, and each group includes two smaller divisions. The first group includes the inscriptions which are fully covered with Kufic-like quasi-texts. The second group includes inscriptions that resemble handwritings. Of these two groups, the second one is more likely to accompany other decorative designs. In many decorative inscriptions; the formal and structural elements are entangled together to the extent that their distinction and reading is simply not possible. In the third group, it is possible to identify letters of the Islamic alphabet, though they are not legible. In the fourth group, the inscription is partly readable, inscribed along with the quasi-writings that cannot be read. The purpose of this paper is to introduce and classify this type of quasi-writings in the Islamic art. In this regard, the main two questions are as follows: 1- What are the reasons for depicting quasi-writings among the inscriptions? 2- How and within which structure have the quasi-writings been inscribed? To achieve this purpose, methods of visual analysis have been used in terms of the inscription samples of the Islamic period. The statistical population and samples have been chosen from the wide array of inscriptions of Islamic art.The use of writing in the Islamic arts, except to save and record the entries and text-based documents, which are associated to knowledge and information, could have been developed due to a different reason that has been more associated with decorative aspects (that could also be called the motif-centered texts). This type of texts that may fall in the framework of inscriptions is seen in much of the Islamic crafts and was mostly provided as ornamentation. This extensive field may include tombstones to clothing and carpets. Numerous examples of these products in the early Islamic periods testify to the application of texts as ornamentations. Messages on inscriptions should be considered as having an important function, but decorative function of inscriptions should be regarded as a more important one. It is not in vain to say that inscription or writing may well be expected as another category of decorations along with geometric and arabesque decorations in Islamic art.As well as the decorative inscriptions, there are writings – or in a sense quasi-writings – that are not legible. This ineligibility is not because of scrambled handwriting, overflow and compactness of writing elements, etc, in fact these quasi-writing signs have not been drawn to be read, since they have not been formed based on rules of Islamic scripts, but due to their general resemblance to the form of the Islamic alphabet, or a style of writing, they look like writing. This similarity is underlined by compliance with the structure of Islamic alphabet, vicinity to other decorative systems, compliance with a specific base line and of course the topic of déjà vu.Fantasy or orientation on familiar topics like literature, perhaps physical structure and visual perception error may be considered among the main reasons for it. In fact, ambiguity with textual similarities leads to an illusion in the eye.  This ambiguity has been a means that for certain purposes – which will be referred to – has helped the artists. Because ambiguity is a tool and phenomenon of comprehension institutionally and essentially, and scientists fight error, while artists welcome ambiguity ... in this perception, a type of unrealistic comprehension replaces the real comprehension. The succeeding view of comprehension is perception of objects which occur to our minds through inference which signs have been entrusted to our memories. Comprehension is something that is focused on due to deviation and digression from the truth.It is necessary to systematically deviate from the norm. In fact, similarity of decorative writings with what which is not in fact writing (and only deemed as writing because of its similarity to Islamic alphabet) has lead to creation of types of decoration, especially in Islamic handicrafts.

Iranian painting is an art that has been able to depict beauty in the passage of time and has been transferred from the external beauty to the world and things beyond what is evident in its five external senses through the artist's imagination; the world that Schihab ad-Din Yahya Suhrawardi, while acknowledging its existence, tried to prove its existence with some reasonings, and all the scholars of Islam and Iran returned to this discussion and developed it, and as a source, they were nurtured by it. Iranian painter, like an illuminated scientist, by entering the field of intuition and illumination by following the concept of separate space (imaginary world), has been able to transform the two-dimensional level of painting into an image of the hierarchy and by elevating the viewer from the horizon of normal life and material existence to a level above this physical world, a world which, of course, has its own time, place and forms, has made him more aware of this world. Although many studies have been done on Iranian-Islamic painting by the Iranian and foreign scholars, many of its hidden and spiritual aspects have not yet been properly expressed.It seems that one of the most important reasons is that most researchers have looked at these paintings from the perspective of extra cultural studies. They have analyzed these works from the perspective of their beliefs. That is why, instead of analyzing Iranian works of art from the perspective of tradition (in its original meaning), they have paid attention to them from a purely historical perspective. That is why Islamic art is considered as the result of historical interactions of artists, and it is considered as a product of historical exchanges. The approach of Iranian-Islamic painting is the simultaneous emphasis on the material appearance of the work and its delicate interior. This attitude of the painter is the result of a special wise view of art and industry in Islamic civilization, because the painter trained in this school learns to respect creation well and to use his field of action and material activity as an opportunity to reveal and portray the spiritual subtleties expressed in Islamic wisdom.The artists of Islamic Iran were like mystics who came to know the universe through faith. In other words, just as philosophy means loving knowledge, mysticism is knowing the secret of love. In some arts, such as painting, the mystical aspects reach their peak. Light, color and space in this art have the task of showing the power and elegance of love. But, this love has a divine approach; because love does not belong to unstable and transient beings. That is why the painters were looking for subjects so that they could show their spiritual and heartfelt aspirations and share them with the people. For them, the most important book of Muslims - the Qur'an - and its stories was the best option. That is why Behzad goes to the story of Yousef escaping from Zulaikha; by depicting it, he conveys one of the most important mystical religious themes - truth - by involving artists in architectural elements.Kamal al-Din Behzad's painting "Yousef's Escape from Zulaikha" is one of the outstanding works of the Timurid period, which has different artistic and semantic features. This painting is inspired by, and the product of a tasteful explanation of one of the Qur'anic stories that has a mystical Islamic discourse. Although many studies of epistemological, historical, artistic and mystical fields have been done around it, many of its angles have not been explored yet. One of the hidden aspects of this work is the painter's creative effort in conveying one of the most fundamental pillars of Islamic mysticism - namely, truth. Truth in literature and mysticism is the cause of excellence. The aims of this research are to examine the semantic structures and unique creations of Behzad in the mentioned painting and to show his special doctrinal and artistic concerns. It seems that painting has been a tool for mystical expressions for him and in this regard, he has used the semantic meanings of architectural elements in promoting content and technical aspects. The most important questions of this research are why and how did the artist contribute the architectural elements in conveying the theme of truth? What are the special artistic and semantic advantages of this work and what are the findings for contemporary artists?The research method is descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection is documentary and library-based. This research has shown that the painter has used architectural elements with great generosity and special foresight in conveying his desired theme and has taken emerging steps in order to improve the effect of the message by giving special semantic meanings to conventional objects and affairs.

Literary-artistic texts are better known and decoded in the context of their formation. Codes of artwork are seriously affected by the semantic roots from which the work develops. That is why a text in different periods has different implications. The story of Joseph is one of the stories that has been considered in the sacred texts of the Torah and the Qur'an, art, literature and mysticism of various eras, and over the years, artists, poets, and moviemakers have paid much attention to it.Joseph's narrative has been expressed in a special way in each period in accordance with the paradigm of time and with the effects that the author has had on the narration in the context of its formation, and in recreating the work, different sub-narratives have been used in creating the text, and it has considered the use of the story, the theme or the representation of a sub-narrative of a section of the narrative in various arts and media.This study intends to examine Joseph's narrative in an intertextual manner in literary, artistic and religious texts, as well as cultural, social and historical influences, the author's personal life in narration, and myth analysis in different periods of creation, and the expression manner in each media.In the narrations mentioned from the story of Joseph in different texts, the various relations of the texts in terms of form and meaning are mentioned, which is called intertextuality. But what is considered today in the field of literary criticism and theories as intertextuality, is not simply the expression of the relationship between texts. Intertextuality expresses the relationship and intersection of texts in different cultures throughout the history of human life, which are influenced by each other due to the nature of social life and cultural proportions and interactions. The creation of new texts with new approaches exposes them to the "reading" of other generations, and in fact it is the intersection and connection of texts that leads to their evolution.Narratives on art, literature and love have made a great contribution in the relationship between culture and the depth of society and people, as well as the fusion of different nations and cultures with each other, and love in this narrative, as a comprehensive theme for creating art and literature and creating interaction between the dominant culture of the time and the people, is of interest. Joseph's story has a religious origin and is introduced in the holy books of Judaism and Islam, and has since been widely discussed in religious and mystical interpretations, as well as art and literature. This research aims to: 1- Identify the considered elements and the components used in Joseph's narrative in different periods of recreating the narrative in the media and used in that time and culture (literature and visual arts) and to 2- Identify the similarities and differences of this narrative in different literary, artistic and sacred texts, studies the intertextuality of this narrative.It seeks to answer the following questions: 1- How have the context of time, community culture and the type of creator's attitude influenced how the narrative is presented in the context and the use of the sub-narratives? 2. What are the similarities and differences of this narrative in different literary, artistic and sacred texts? The research method is descriptive-analytical with a comparative approach and the collection of materials is documentary. In data analysis, the use of narrative and sub-narratives in each medium were examined separately and then matched with each other.This research aims to discover the changes and differences in the narratives of Joseph and the pattern of narrative of Joseph in different times, and to look at this romantic myth in the cultural context of the time of recreation. Then, the intertextuality method is used to analyze the myths and to match the texts with each other. In the analysis method, first the religious texts and their processing method are examined according to the narration, and then these processing methods, in each of the sources of Torah, Qur'an, Haft Awrang, Behzad's drawing and Farshchian's paintings, are analyzed and matched.The results show that the use of sub-narratives, changes in narrative style at different times, the effects of society on narration at different times, the influence of the author and the pattern of time on the effect and its impact on society make it widely used in the arts, especially in the contemporary arts. The expression of this narrative and the use of sub-narratives have varied over time and according to socio-cultural requirements. While emphasizing the essence of the story (Qur'an and Torah ), artists have considered factors such  as the interaction between society and myth, change in society and culture and its impact on the artist's perspective, and have incorporated various sub-narratives into each art form.

In the Safavid period, along the growth of other arts, carpet was manufactured as a valuable product, by support of the patrons, while the period was known as the golden age of design, pattern, color and carpet production. Above all, the Persian painting, applying the illustration of dominant literary subjects, is constantly known as one of the fields, suitable for an artistic challenge. Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh is a highly influential issue in the realm of painting of Iranian historical periods which has been performed by the most professional artists. The present illustrated versions of Persian painting embody different concepts that have been elaborated by taking advantage of prevalent elements of the daily life. Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh which is known as one of the jewels of Persian painting of the mentioned period, having an expanded variety of unique features, is a proper domain to represent the artistic issues in a gorgeous way, and besides, the carpets play an important role in the composition and decoration. As a conclusion, the Persian carpets in the different versions of shahnameh, are considered as part of subjects, applied by artists in order to make relevant illustrations and are alike the elements of their own periods. However, it seems that illustrations of some existent illustrated carpets in the Shah Tahmasb’s Shahameh have their own principles in Iranian paintings.Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh is considered as a magnificent art work of early Safavid Miniature School (Tabriz II).  Interwoven by the two main miniature schools of Herat and Turkmens, this masterpiece includes 258 illustrations. The main design elements of each illustration in Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh include natural scenery, battle and festivity scenes, mythical tales, Iranian architectural buildings and carpets.Abundance of the carpets that are figured and illustrated in the mentioned version of Shahnameh, and also the historical period of it, which are supreme factors in the production of handmade carpets, demonstrate the importance of them. Therefore, the main issue in the present research is to conduct a study on the total pattern of illustrated carpets in Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh and to scrutinize on the figures and elements used in it which have been performed in order to reach a collection of categorized data about the carpets in terms of the structural aspects of design and illustration in Iranian carpets. At last, it will present a possibility to have a comparison on the outcomes of this research, on the carpets of the Safavid period. Thus, these are the main questions of the research:What are the features of illustrations and elements in the represented carpets of Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh?How are the diversities and categorizations of designs in the represented carpets of Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh?The research method is descriptive-analytical with the pattern and design morphology approach and the data are analyzed qualitatively. The information about the identification and historical background of the illustrations of Shahnameh is gathered through library research. The study cases totally include 80 samples, out of which 14 samples in five categories (3 samples in the category of Overall Flower carpets, 2 samples in the category of Lachak Medallion, 3 samples in the category of Medallion, 3 samples in the category of Panel patterns and 3 samples in the category of patternless field designs) have been purposively selected for the analysis.   According to the general categorization and features of each rank, the details and compounds have been considered and analyzed in the whole studies, and analyses are based upon the rules and principles of Iranian carpet which is adherent to the traditional designing principles of Iranian art. To have more understanding and observation about the mentioned carpets, the linear patterns of all the samples have been prepared and all the analyses are based upon them. The results demonstrate that the carpets available in the Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh are under the effect of a desire to fantasy and enthusiasm of the Turkmens school (which appears in Overall Flower carpets) and the original and meticulous style of Herat (demonstrated itself in framed carpets and Kufic margins). Generally, the carpets illustrated in the Shah Tahmasb’s Shahnameh are the fruits of imagination of the artists who their main concern was to represent the chief concept that they were focusing on, which is to illustrate different topics of Shahnameh beside the reflection of magnificence of the art protectors. Above all, the general construction of carpets conforms to those that remained from that period. The value of the carpets is so predominant, beside the other arts like music, architecture, handicrafts and etc. The illustrations are committed to the carpet weaving traditions of Iran and they construct significant parts of the illustrations, related to the dexterity of the artist, as if they have a decorative function and they cannot be assumed as remained carpets from the Safavid era.

The art of religious murals with themes of Ashura, narrations of prophets and Shiite imams, is a part of Qajar visual arts, which has adorned the space of holy places such as mausoleums, Takyehs and Hoseyniyehs. This art reflects the characteristics of popular culture such as religious beliefs, values, interests and social aspects in the Qajar era. During this era, due to the social changes which took place in it, art was extended to different layers of society and became a means of expressing the national and religious beliefs of the people. Mural painting grew a lot among the ordinary people and they entered the art scene with their own tastes. Large paintings on the walls or canvases with the themes of Shiite martyrs appeared, and in fact were the results of about eleven centuries of gradual development and evolution of Shiite mourning rituals. The phenomenon of religious murals in this era was created by preserving the logical values ​​of religious art, based on people's beliefs, needs and desires, because the Qajar era was the culmination of public Shiite religious ceremonies, which in turn was reflected in the visual arts. The epic themes of the murals show the support of the people of the liberation movements of this era. To evaluate the Qajar paintings, one must compare them with the versions of Ta'zieh, because as soon as the Ta'zieh was accepted by the common people, a number of believers performed the role of martyrs and sinners, and this was a step towards accepting the painting. Considering Iran’s cultural developments in the mentioned era and the emergence of new contexts for presenting paintings, it is necessary to study the impact of these developments on Qajar painters. The study and analysis of the factors affecting the creation of murals and their stylistic features have been the subject of numerous researches in recent decades. But, it seems that pondering on this subject, using philosophical approaches such as Hans-Georg Gadamer’s hermeneutics, which includes concepts such as tradition, conversation, semantic horizon and horizon fusion, can pave the way for achieving the neglected aspects of this art and hence the necessity of applying this approach becomes clear. The purpose of present research is to interpret and study the influence of the semantic horizon and horizon fusion in religious artworks by artists of Gilan and Isfahan in the Qajar era. The studied questions are: 1- What are the effects of horizon fusion in the works of artists in Gilan and Isfahan? 2- What are the commonalities and differences between their works? The research method was descriptive-analytical with philosophical hermeneutic approach of Gadamer. In this method, understanding occurs through the blending of horizons, which is dialectical, between preconceptions and information sources. What is needed here is understanding the context in which the text or dialogue has taken shape and given rise to different interpretations. These interpretations are created through the mixing of the text, its context and the horizons of the participants. The method of collecting information was using library resources as well as field study of mural works by taking photos of them. The statistical population was the murals of Gilan province and Isfahan city. Eight murals were introduced from the works of one Gilani artist (Aghajan Gilani) and two Isfahani artists (Seyed Abbas Aghamiri and the painter of the Khansari tomb); four of which had been analyzed. Sampling was done by judgmental method and based on the relationship between the works and the concepts under discussion. The method of analysis was qualitative and in order to measure the purpose of the research, first the concepts related to Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics were described, then the regions, artists and their selected works were introduced and finally, the murals were analyzed dialectically based on understanding by merging horizons. The results of the research showed that the artist of murals, with the prejudices that belonged to the semantic horizon of his time, conversed with the past tradition and established a constructive interaction between the present and the past; in the sense that under the influence of the semantic horizon of the past, the context, its socio-cultural context, began to create works that were a new interpretation of tradition. At the same time, fusion of horizons has had a different effect on the artists of the two selected regions, and Gilani artist, due to the context of his residence, has been less influenced by the contemporary trends of painting than the Isfahani artist and has remained more loyal to the Iranian tradition.

The Qajar dynasty came to power in 1785 and ruled until 1925. During this last phase of traditional Persian history, succeeding shahs tried to change the isolationist stance of the country by expanding cultural and economic interchange with the West. The 19th century was marked by continual unrest, caused by tribal groups competing for power. Foreign encroachment also contributed to conflicts. By mid-century, Persia had again become a crossroads to the East, because European colonialism demanded short routes to the Orient for explorers, archeologists, soldiers, scholars, pilgrims, tourists, writers, painters and photographers. During the long reign of Naser al-Din Shah (1848-1896) the desire for reformist policies and the continuing need for new funds led to the awarding of licenses to foreign concessionaires from Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy and Austria. It was during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah’s father, Mohammad Shah (1834-1848) that the first cameras came to Iran through Russia and Britain. Photographers in Iran can be divided into three broad categories: first, those belonging to the European documentary and geographic tradition, who explored cultural and physical differences throughout the world; second, indigenous photographers, who experimented with the new technical discoveries for enjoyment, without a defined mission; and third, commercial photographers, who discovered that images could be sold. The earliest practitioners of photography in Persia were Europeans from France, Austria and Italy. They were instructors at Dar al-Fonun, the well-known Tehran polytechnic established by Naser al-Din Shah in 1850 to train officers, civil and military engineers, doctors and interpreters. Photography was introduced into the curriculum after 1870. The Frenchman, Jules Richard who taught French at Dar al-Fonun was probably the first among the foreigners to print images on paper treated with silver nitrate. Photography in Qajar Iran was first at the court’s service or for documenting official events, but it gradually adopted some artistic and popular approaches. This medium in that time would provide the artists who had become familiar with modern European techniques of painting with some fresh, useful tools to try realistic imagery. However, the impact of photography on Qajar painters was not restricted to oil painting or watercolor, but it exerted its sphere of influence in a wider domain, including lacquerwork, particularly pen boxes. Under the Qajar dynasty the best miniature painting is usually found not in the illustration of manuscripts, as in the earlier periods of the art, but in the decoration of objects in lacquered papier-mache. This art reached a high state of development under Fath Ali Shah, but the best works produced under Naser al-Din Shah in the middle years of the 19th century were perhaps even finer. During this century lacquerwares were one of the most important forms of decorative art produced in Iran. Their importance is reflected in the sheer quantity of items that were made, and in the dynamism with which the decoration of lacquerwares developed. Actually, early Qajar lacquerwares look very different from those in later times throughout the whole century, especially from the Nasseri period on. It can hardly be doubted that the lacquerwork of the early Qajar period was to a large extent a continuation of the traditions established in the late Safavid, Afshar and Zand periods. The repertory of 18th century lacquer decoration included figural, floral and flower-and-bird themes, illumination and calligraphy; however, this visual tradition inclined towards more realistic subject matters with an emphasis on portraiture, most specifically depicting the portraits of kings, princes, officials and dignitaries. The present article aims at studying the impact of photography on the visual evolution of the lacquerwork in Qajar art and it tries to answer the following questions: How did photography exert influence on the development of visual arts and portraiture in Qajar period? How can we evaluate such impact on lacquerwork, especially pen boxes? The results demonstrate that photography had a considerable effect on visual arts, especially portraiture, in that period, and such a movement can be traced in other art media such as lacquer pen boxes, mirror cases, etc. Artists and artisans active in making pen boxes and other lacquer artifacts would use photographs in two ways on their artworks: first, by precise copying of portraits and other elements in pictures, and second, by just pasting the ready photos as labels under lacquer. Pen boxes with Qajar portraits usually contain the realistic paintings of rulers, courtiers, statesmen, the nobility and women within an oval frame in a Westernized structure. Such portraits are mostly depicted in the central panel in larger dimension than other adjacent ones. The dignitaries painted in here are officially dressed and are represented in vertical visual composition. This gradual development in the visual tradition of this era could be considered as a result of the introduction of photography into Qajar Iran, particularly from the middle 19th century onward, and it continues right into the end of this dynasty, with a decline in quality.

Glassmaking, as one of the valuable arts of Iran and Egypt, dates back to several thousand years ago. It entered into a new stage during the Islamic period with a rich historical and artistic background, so that the 3rd-7th centuries AH are considered as one of the most important eras of glassmaking in the Islamic period of Iran and Egypt. Iranian glassmaking in the Islamic period evolved while preserving and continuing the techniques of glass making and decorating of the previous era. Meanwhile, Egypt has been one of the main centers of glassmaking, and the ancient Egyptians were among the most prominent and skilled glassmakers in the world, but the peak of this art and craft took place in Egypt during the Islamic centuries. Despite the rich history of Iranian and Egyptian glass art, studies in this field have received less attention. Therefore, the present study is a comparative study of the sample glass chandeliers from the Islamic period of Iran and Egypt.Egypt is one of the countries in constant interaction with Iran; both of which have influenced each other in various fields. These interactions and influences in different historical periods have increased or decreased according to the governing conditions. The vital role of the Silk Road and the road’s ending at the shores of the Mediterranean Sea as well as Egypt, the transfer of artworks, and the migration of artists, caused an extensive relation in various economic, cultural and artistic fields between two countries from the beginning of Islam until the 6th-7th centuries AH.Also, the role of Bandar-e Siraf and the trade of glassware through the Red Sea between Iran and Egypt cannot be overlooked. Iran and Egypt, as the pioneers in the art of glassmaking, have made a great contribution to its advancement in the Islamic period.The purpose of this research is recognizing part of the glassworks of these countries and achieving their similarities and contrasts by focusing on the elements that have built up the form and overall structure of the components, patterns and ornaments under the title of morphology which is a science in the field of literary studies; currently used in other fields including art studies. The Russian researcher and anthropologist, Vladimir Propp first coined the term morphology. Morphology literally means studying and recognizing shapes and faces. That is the study of the components of an object and their relationship to each other and to the whole structure of that object. Morphology does not only mean determining the form and shape of works, but it also generalizes to recognizing and classifying works, determining the fixed and variable elements of each work, and in a broader dimension, extracting the morphological pattern, and the scientific comparative study of works by reviewing components of each effect.The present study seeks to answer these questions: 1) What are the visual features of Iranian and Egyptian glass chandeliers in terms of morphology, 2) What are the differences and similarities in the shape of the glass chandeliers of Iran and Egypt in the 3rd-7th centuries AH?This research is developmental in terms of purpose, retrospective in terms of time, and descriptive-analytical in terms of nature and method. Data and information were collected through authentic library sources. The population includes 12 samples of Iranian glass chandeliers and 9 samples of Egyptian glass chandeliers during the 3rd-7th centuries AH.The results indicate that despite the similarities in the shape of glass chandeliers, differences in their components, including fixed elements of the body, neck, base and pendant, and variable elements of ornaments and patterns, differentiated Iranian and Egyptian glass chandeliers from each other. Body, neck, pendant ring and base are considered as the fixed components, and various decorations and designs on glass chandeliers are among the changing elements of these works.  The body shape of Iranian and Egyptian glass chandeliers is parabolic and vase-like, but differences exist in these forms.The neck of Egyptian chandeliers is taller and wider than the neck shape of Iranian glass chandeliers, with a wide mouth made by a glass artist, which, like the body, has been a suitable background for presenting decorations and designs. A flat base was observed in the glass chandeliers of both countries, while a long base was observed in the glass chandeliers of Egypt. Despite the similarity of the shape of the glass rings -to pass the chains and hang the chandelier from the ceiling- there are differences in the glass chandeliers of Iran and Egypt, including the ring-like shape of this component in Iranian chandeliers and the handle-like form in Egyptian chandeliers. Also, some methods of decorating glassworks by glass artists have been used in only one of these countries. Drawn upon the study, the Egyptian glass artists, unlike the Iranian ones, were attracted to the use of pure abstract and iconic-abstract decorations.

Some of the most impressive displays of delicate plaster work can be found when we look up in a space in Islamic Iranian architecture. Plaster is an ideal medium for decorative work, because it can take fine detail. It is also versatile: plaster can be formed into ornate, multi-layered ceiling medallions, intricate friezes replete with scrolls and swags, or long runs of coved cornice work. Plaster can be cast, shaped, carved, sculpted, sanded, or cut. When Islam opened a new view to art philosophy, it affected the ornament style in Iranian architecture. If one had to choose the defining material of Muslim culture, it would, without a doubt, be stucco. In contemporary history, plaster has been considered a relatively poor material, probably due to its lack of application in heavy duty building work, its easy handling and the simple process it takes to transform it from rock mineral. But, human dexterity, particularly that of Muslim artisans, helped to produce designs in stucco, and numerous buildings decorated with that technique have survived for us to admire. Architectural decoration has been one of the most resilient of the Islamic arts. The partial and more often overall decoration of buildings has been a characteristic feature of Islamic architecture from the eighth century onwards. Religious monuments as well as secular complexes have been decorated with an array of styles and techniques that reflected the multiplicity of Muslim societies and their cultural expressions. The importance given to decorating one's built environment has also been applied to temporary settlements such as tented encampments. Islamic plasterwork covers almost every single surface of walls, arches, vaults and ceilings, gaining an almost textile-like quality through their intricate ornament and vibrant palette of colours. Its almost overwhelming appearance is the result of the interconnection and superimposition of different ornamental elements: calligraphic inscriptions, geometric lazo. The interior decorations are centered on the mihrab. In fact, one can find almost all elements and methods of decoration on and around this symbolic place. There is a harmonious and creative co-existence between plaster, marble and brass. In addition, the mihrab typifies the beautiful marriage of all methods of decoration, especially geometry, floriation, calligraphy. The main roll of mihrab and its decoration became a mainstream in aesthetic orientation in Iranian art and architecture that spread to numerous architectural types such as schools to houses. One of the types of secular architecture is the house. Therefore, in order to evaluate this hypothesis and find the answer to the question: In what period are Chohar-soffeh decorations of Dosiran village rooted? the authors attempted to gather the information about Dosiran’s Chohar-soffeh houses and their decorations, and then examined the characteristics of these decorations and index samples similar to them in the history of the country and finally made a comparative comparison of the physical content of these samples. The research method includes survey, analytical-descriptive and interpretive-historical methods. Research data were obtained through field surveys, personal observations, and library documents. The research tool is logical inference and comparative comparison based on Carry-Walk-Method. Finally, it was concluded that two types of these inscriptions have a body similar to the plaster altars of the Ilkhanid period and in terms of content have the salient features of the plasterwork of this period; nevertheless, works of art combining the late Sassanid and early Islamic periods can also be seen in the drawings of all these inscriptions. The ornaments of Dosiran’s Chohar-soffehs, due to their appearance, organization and special content, as well as the way they are placed on the walls of the plates and the level of rib vaults, have given double value to the mansions of Gholam Hossein Naderi and Koohyar Dashti. These inscriptions include five different shapes and three general patterns. From the studies and comparisons, it was concluded that the Dosiran’s Chohar-soffehs strongly show the artistic course of the country from the late Sassanid period to the Ilkhanid period due to having well-known and important designs in the art history of Iran such as arabesques and Khataee motifs, flowers, knots (Gereh) and significant objects, which are mainly rooted in the Islamic period, as well as representing distinctive features such as great similarity to the valuable and sacred pattern of the altar in Islamic art and architecture, indicative features of Ilkhanid altars, using similar motifs to widely used motifs of the Sassanid era, the application of the natural form of plants and important techniques such as Muqarnas and honeysuckle (Laneh Zanbouri) ornament. The appearance and origins of the drawings of these inscriptions and the adapted examples are evidence of this claim; because despite the existence of continuity and artistic connection in the history of the country, some artistic features are specific to a particular period of history and are less considered in later periods. However, in Dosiran’s Chohar-soffehs, the characteristics of the bedrock of several periods are shown together.

National authority is a kind of rightful power, governing all potentials of a nation and attaining an enormous part of its validation and identity in their culture, through different mechanisms such as art, because although art provides a kind of visual pleasure in its outward appearance based on the aesthetic elements, it has also the potential to convey messages and thoughts and display political and social necessities of its own era in its hidden perspective and deep meaningful layers. Thus, as Foucault believed, each artwork is the meeting of different political and social debates which may be investigated for the purpose of identifying and analyzing the hidden meanings of authority, power and sovereignty. In this regard, the present research, with a case study approach, has focused on a tile tabletop from Qajar era, a work by Ali Muhammad Isfahani, so as to answer this question: How and by means of which characteristics are the content-based layers of its figures and illustrations created to become a visual proof of consolidation of national authority of Iran in international arena and to display such meaning? To answer accordingly, studies were conducted with reference to reliable library-electronic resources and based on iconological criticism approach to elaborate on the way the meaning was given to such tiles. The analysis displays that if the national authority is based on these three elements: identity factors, sense of belonging to such factors and knowledge of such factors, the artist has carried out illustration and visual narration according to all these elements. In fact, the artist has not merely intended to display the identity factors and belongingness, but he had a comprehensive and extensive knowledge of them and has taken action in creating decorative drawings and figures, relying on such knowledge and comprehension for the following reasons:1- From all verse, prose and folk stories which have always been reflecting the thoughts of the Iranians in ups and downs of historical events, the artist has chosen some stories which emphasize on political heritage of the Iranians and their victories against the enemies’ invasions more than the others. Therefore, he has chosen five stories from Shahnameh, three stories from Hosseinnameh and one from Ghahremannameh.2- Whereas he was aware that Houshang is the first king of the world after Kiomars and the founder of mythical ages of the world, he has placed the illustrations of such characters on the head of the tabletop and has set that as a base for placement and sequence of other illustrations.3- He has made endeavors to convey some messages such as honor, bravery, courage, patience, chivalry, compassion, generosity, loyalty, patriotism, sacrifice and defense in the framework of interests of Iranian nation, and to hide them under visual layer of his artwork, because he created this artwork in a situation when he was first, completely aware of the position of its orderer, Robert Murdoch Smith, and he knew that this tile tabletop would be sent abroad to the UK after its creation and delivery, and second, he had accepted such order at a time when a new period of endangering historical borders and territorial integrity of Iran was started.4- Whereas he was aware that authority is not an abstract concept and that it will come to existence when it is considered proportional to each period of time, he has made use of the common technique of that period, which is underglaze painting with light and bright colors in forming the mechanism of his artwork. Although, in this regard he obliged himself to display such mechanism with Iranian and Islamic attributes. Therefore, he refers to the tradition of accompaniment with literary contents; exactly in the middle of the period when tendency to modernism and to disconnect from literature became popular following the west.  Further, he has made use of rules and principles of Persian miniature.Thus, we can generally conclude that Ali Muhammad Isfahani has not just intended to display his antecedent through repeating the historical patterns in the exact same form, but he was completely aware of all identity factors such as history, geography and territory, political heritages and government and cultural and scientific heritages, and connected them to the visual elements of his artwork in line with a specific and purposeful orientation. In other words, he has institutionalized them as the meaningful layers of visual elements of his artwork to signify a proof of an illustration of consolidation of national authority of Iran in international arena in the form of a painted tile tabletop; narrating the interesting ancient stories of Iran.