پژوهش نامه تاریخ اسلام
سال یازدهم شماره 43 (پاییز 1400)

In the middle ages, the Crusaders possessed some parts of the western territory of the Islamic world and continued their establishment until the 6th and 7th centuries. Considering religious teachings regardless of ethnic, political, and religious diversity could have played a strategic role in how Muslims faced the crusaders. The main question of the research is how Islamic unity doctrines in the three periods of the beginning, middle, and end of the crusades influenced the confrontation between Muslims and Christians? Using a descriptive-analytical method, the results of the research indicate that the application of the doctrines of unity on the Islamic side faced some obstacles such as the lack of political cohesion, ethnic diversity, religious fragmentation, and the independent activity of some paramilitary groups like The Isma'ili. Despite all that, sometimes by rereading some common religious doctrines such as the finality of the Prophet (PBUH), the comprehensiveness and superiority of the Islamic religion, the necessity of jihad against the infidels and obeying the ruler, Islamic unity has been accomplished. Changing the political structure in a convergent form with the coalition of some governments in the region by ʿImād al-Din Zangī, the integration of the ideological structure by Nūr al-Dīn Zangī and their integration by Salah al-Din Ayyūbi were the strategies that facilitated the formation of the Islamic United Front and became a model for the Mamlūk sultans.

During the Umayyad of Andalusia period (138-421), Saqaliba came to this land while the Umayyad government was very dissatisfied with the competition between the Arabs and Berbers and their continuous conflicts with each other. Hence, the Umayyads tried to attract the Saqalibas and connect them to the court to take advantage of their ability to balance power in the society and continue their monarchy. The present research after reviewing the condition of the Saqaliba slaves and eunuchs aimed to answer the question that what was the role of these slaves in changing the fate of the Umayyad government and transferring it to ʿĀmirids. The findings indicate that after “castration” these slaves were employed in the caliphs’ palaces and harems and due to their close relationship with the rulers, emirs, and government officials, they had access to the government’s secret details. Therefore, they could intervene in power relations and play an effective role in weakening the Umayyad government in Andalusia and giving power to ʿĀmirids.

After the political concentration of Iran during the Ilkhanate period, trade flourished in the territory of Iran. For further prosperity and facilitation of trade, it was necessary to create travel infrastructures, amenities and roadside facilities. This research by a descriptive-analytical method aims to answer the question that what factors were effective in the growth of roadside facilities and increasing the comfort of travelers during the Ilkhanate period? The findings of the research indicate that the Ilkhanate by establishing sovereignty over their territory secured the roads. Also, they considered the infrastructure of roads with the participation of elders and court dependents and promoting charity and endowment (waqf). Therefore, charity played a significant role in the prosperity of these infrastructures. On the other hand, the crossing of the roads from the local governments’ political territory and the activity of the mystical ways along the roads led to the growth of the roadside facilities and the increase in travelers’ comfort during the Ilkhanate period.

The economic policies of Iran in the early nineteenth century led to the expansion of foreign trade. After that border customs became one of the important sources of income for the country. It seems that by the prosperity of border customs, Kermanshah was also developed due to being on the trade route leading to the Ottoman. The question of the present study is what was the influence of the border customs on the economic situation of Kermanshah from the Safavid period to the end of the Qajar period? This research has been done with a descriptive-analytical approach based on documentary and library sources, especially travelogues, memoirs, and documents. The findings of the research indicate that the border customs did not have much effect on improving the economic situation of Kermanshah during the research period. Kermanshah was involved in the war due to its proximity to the Ottomans during the Safavid period which resulted in an unfavorable economic situation. The economy of Kermanshah grew during the reign of Karim Khan Zand and the rule of Allahqoli Khan Zanganeh. However, Kermanshah customs during the Qajar period did not have much effect on the economic situation prosperity of that region due to the First World War, the famine and the diseases it brought.

The battle of the DJAMAL was planned shortly after the public allegiance to Amir al-Mu'minin (AS) by two of the treaty breakers, Ṭalḥa and Zubair, accompanied by ʿĀʾisha. The planners of the war chose Basra as the battlefield and the Imam led an army towards Basra. Because the Imam's character was based on conversation, clarification, not to initiate war, and ultimatum before the war, he organized oral and possibly written conversations with the war leaders. Historical narratives differ about the addressee of the letter or the conversation between the Imam and the battle of the DJAMAL belligerents. The conflict between historical sources is whether the imam addressed only Ṭalḥa and Zubair or ʿĀʾisha also has been addressed in the letter or whether a separate letter was written to ʿĀʾisha? A few sources are narrating this letter and the sources quoting a separate letter to ʿĀʾisha are even fewer. The strength of these two letters is that both have been mentioned in some sources of the 3rd century AH and their weakness is the few narrative sources. The present article considered the validity of the two letters and organized the difference in sources as much as possible by using the method of text criticism, which is considered to be new but effective in the field of Ḥadīth research.

Translating Hindu works into the Persian language in the Indian Subcontinent has been done in various periods, particularly during the Jalāl al-Dīn Muhammad Akbar period. The main question of the research is that in each period which groups of Muslims showed interest in the translation of Hindu works and what were the motivations of Jalāl al-Dīn Muhammad Akbar for creating a “school” (Maktabkhaneh) for the systematic translation of Hindu works? It seems that the actions of Akbar in translating Hindu works were done to remove Shari'a from the court and include religious minorities especially Hindus in the affairs of the state. According to the findings of this research, although Muhammad Akbar's actions in translating Hindu works and introducing these works to Muslims were due to religious tolerance and rapprochement between religions, because of the unique conditions of the subcontinent at the late Bāburids period these actions raised conflicts between Hindus and Muslims and religious tolerance became more difficult.