نشریه رفتار حرکتی
پیاپی 50 (زمستان 1401)

According to Optimal theory, three factors, namely Enhanced Expectancies, Autonomy Support, and External Focus play a key role to facilitate motor performance and learning. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of optimizing performance through consecutive providing of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support and external attentional focus on learning the square-stepping task in children. A number of 24 children (22 girls and 2 boys) with a mean age of 10.16 ± 0.58 were selected through convenience sampling and were randomly assigned to optimized and control groups. All participants performed 36 trials (3×12) during the practice phase. Optimized group participants were then provided a different condition for each of three acquisition blocks in a counterbalanced order. During the retention and transfer phases, they performed 12 trails. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures and one-way analysis of variance were used to analyze the collected data. During the practice phase, there was no significant difference between the mean time of the square-stepping task across consecutive trial blocks in the optimal and control groups, and also performance under EE, AS, and EF conditions was not significantly different in both groups. In addition, results of the retention and transfer tests showed no significant difference between groups. Therefore, it seems that using key factors of the Optimal theory in a sequential manner throughout practice cannot be an appropriate intervention for motor skills learning in children.

Physical inactivity is one of the factors that seriously threatens the quality of life of today’s children and adults of tomorrow. Schools are one of the most important spaces for promoting motor behavior. In the current research, a qualitative system, content analysis method, and the Delphi technique were used to explore the factors and components of motivating the movement of students in the open space of schools. At first, by examining the background of the research, factors, and variables effective in increasing physical activity were identified. To collect the data, a semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 15 experts in the field of architecture of educational space from different universities in Tehran. After receiving the questionnaires and analysis of the feedback surveys, 26 influential variables were obtained. To find the relationship between the effective factors and the extracted components, a total of 130 architects and school staff were selected through non-random sampling and used a closed questionnaire with a Likert rating scale. The results have led to the exploration of social/interactive components along with their sub-variables including (participation, educability, naturalism, group interactions, explorability, and yard rotation), environmental factors (sunlight, materials, safety, arrange, personalization, temperature, and seasonal changes), physical factors (form, proportions, shape, and dimensions), cognitive component (marking and color), managerial factor (yard diversity, supervision, density, and accessibility) and behavioral components (familiarity, flexibility, and ergonomic). Taking into account the factors and variables involved in the physical activity of students in the schoolyard will provide an environment that encourages children’s motor behavior.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of game sense on improvement of basketball executive skills and non-practiced tasks in children with developmental coordination disorder. 40 female right-handed students among 56 elementary schools aged 10-12, were screened based on the criteria of the statistical and diagnostic guidelines for mental disorders among the students of Ardabil city. Children were randomly assigned to two groups: traditional and game sense. The measurements included were, movement assessment battery for children second edition (MABC2), AAHPERD basketball skills test, game performance assessment instrument and handwriting problem check list. All measures were administered pre and post an 8-week training program, 16 session, which each session lasted for 40 minutes. The results of multivariate covariance analysis showed that students were better in decision-making, support, passing and dribbling skills using game sense (p<0/05), but there was no significant difference in other components. Also, in the examination of the handwriting skills of students with DCD, the game sense group was significantly better than the traditional group (p<0/01). In general, game sense pedagogy showed a better improvement in both practiced and non-practiced skills, and the findings suggest that use game-oriented and question based approaches in teaching sports skills to these kind of children.

The aim of study was the psychometric of the Persian version of the Learning, Executive, and Attention Functioning (LEAF) scale in athletes. The statistical sample consisted of 252 (female=152) Iranian athletes older than 17 years who were selected using the snowball sampling method via sending an online questionnaire. The research tools, including the LEAF scale for adults (Castellanos et al., 2018) and the Barkley Functional Impairment Scale (2011), were used to examine the concurrent validity. The second order confirmatory factor analysis of the scale was used to examine the construct validity of the model. The obtained results showed that, the model has a good fit such that all domains (i.e., comprehension of conceptual learning, factual memory, attention, processing speed, visual organization, sequential processing, working memory, solving a novel problem, mathematics, reading, written expression) showed a high factor loading or correlation with their main dimensions (p≤0.001). Using Cronbach's alpha, the internal consistency reliability was obtained to be over 0.7 and desirable. The correlation between the scores of dimensions and the scale domains was 0.33-0.89, indicating an appropriate validity. The results of the differences analysis to examine the diagnostic validity showed the score of 4 as the cutoff point. MANOVA showed that athletes are significantly different in executive functions based on the level of competition and these functions improve in athletes by increasing the competition level. As the LEAF has appropriate reliability and validity coefficient among adult Iranian athletes, it is suggested that this scale be used in the future sport researches.

According to embodied cognition theory, cognitive processes originate from the areas of the brain involved in motor programing and execution and areas that are responsible for processing sensory inputs. According to the embodied cognition perspective, cognitive systems and perception-motor systems are deeply intertwined and exert a causal effect on each other. Therefore, cognitive activity should cause changes in observable movements. For this reason, in this study, we asked participants (20 females; M age= 21±4) to listen to sentences with action verbs while standing quietly on a balance board. We then examined the standard deviation (SD) and the mean within-trial of their center of pressure (CoP) while the participants were listening to the sentences. This test was repeated for three consecutive days.The analysis of standard deviation demonstrated that CoP fluctuations changed significantly from the baseline when participants listening to action verbs. However, none of the main effects were significant for the mean of CoP. Changes in CoP fluctuations relative to normal body fluctuations while participants were asked to stand quiet and listen only to sentences indicates how cognition and motor are intertwined which was reflected in their motor behavior.

In recent years, physical literacy has attracted international attention and due to its relevance to education and sports policy, much investment has been made in this model in different countries. Despite the importance of the issue of physical literacy, since this concept is in the early stages, there are still no precise instrument for evaluating it at different ages and between different groups. The aim of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of the Persian version of the Perceived Physical Literacy Instrument (PPLI) in physical education teachers. For this purpose, 208 male and female physical education teachers with an age range of 20 to 66 years completed questionnaire. First, the translation of the Persian version of the questionnaire was confirmed using the open translation method and then to determine the construct validity of the questionnaire, confirmatory factor analysis based on structural equation modeling and to determine internal consistency, Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used. Also, for time reliability of the questions, intra-class correlation with test-retest method was used. The results showed that the good fit index and the comparative fit index are higher than 0/9. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for perceived physical literacy and its dimensions above 0.7 (acceptable index value) were obtained. Based on the results, the Persian version of the Perceived Physical Literacy Instrument (PPLI) in physical education teachers has a constructive validity and internal and temporal reliability and can be used as a valid and reliable tool to assess the physical literacy of physical education teachers.

The purpose study was to investigate the effect of manipulating task constraints in Small-sided game (SSG) on team interactions and the technical performance of players in a competitive football game. In a quasi-experimental strategy with repeated measures, 24 amateur players of football aged 11-17 were divided into two groups of 12 people. In training sessions, the first group played with equal number of players and the second group played with the unequal number of players on a field dimensions (20×30) The SSG training period consisted of 4 intervention sessions per week for three weeks (12 sessions in total). There was also a competitive game at the end of each week in which the performance of the players in the competitive games 7 Vs 7 was analyzed. The results of team network analysis showed that the group with unequal player training in games had a higher average team Density than the group with equal player training. The lowest value of Eigenvector centrality belonged to the training group with unequal numbers, and in the total link index, they had the highest number of passes in all games. The results showed that there was a significant difference between post-test and pre-test successful pass (p =0.001), dribble (p = 0.010), and goal shooting (p = 0.05). These results show that SSG games play an important role in promoting team interactions and technical performance of football players and that a variety of task constraints can be used to transfer collective and technical skills to football.