فهرست مطالب

نشریه پژوهشهای زراعی ایران
سال بیست و یکم شماره 1 (پیاپی 69، بهار 1402)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1402/01/01
  • تعداد عناوین: 8
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  • الهه برومند رضازاده، احمد نظامی*، زینب خراسانی، محمد خواجه حسینی صفحات 1-10

    نوسان در ریزش نزولات جوی و کاهش دما، جوانه زنی بذر زیره سبز را در کاشت پاییزه تحت تاثیر قرار می دهد. هدف از این تحقیق، بررسی جوانه زنی شش اکوتیپ زیره سبز در شرایط تنش خشکی در دمای کم بود. تیمارها شامل شش نمونه زیره سبز (پنج اکوتیپ تربت حیدریه، خواف، سبزوار، قاین، قوچان و رقم  RZ19هندی) و هفت سطح پتانسیل آب (صفر، 1-، 2-، 3-، 4-، 5- و 6- بار) بود. بذرها در داخل پتری دیش و تحت شرایط دمایی 13 درجه سانتی گراد قرار گرفته و سطوح خشکی با استفاده از پلی اتیلن گلایکول 6000 ایجاد شد. صفات اندازه گیری شده شامل درصد جوانه زنی، سرعت جوانه زنی، طول ریشه چه و طول ساقه چه بود. نتایج نشان داد که اثر پتانسیل آب بر همه صفات مورد مطالعه معنی دار (05/0P≤) بود و بیشترین و کمترین درصد جوانه زنی به ترتیب در پتانسیل های صفر و 6- بار مشاهده شد. اکوتیپ های زیره سبز در تمام صفات مورد بررسی با هم تفاوت معنی داری (05/0P≤) داشتند و بیشترین درصد جوانه زنی در اکوتیپ های خواف و تربت حیدریه مشاهده شد. در اکوتیپ قوچان کاهش پتانسیل آب از صفر به 2- بار باعث کاهش 69 درصدی جوانه زنی شد، در حالی که در دو اکوتیپ قاین و سبزوار این کاهش به ترتیب حدود 43 و 57 درصد بود. کاهش پتانسیل آب همچنین تاثیر معنی داری بر طول ریشه چه و ساقه چه اکوتیپ های زیره داشت. با توجه به رتبه بندی اکوتیپ ها بر اساس صفات مورد بررسی، اکوتیپ های خواف و تربت حیدریه بهترین امتیاز را به خود اختصاص دادند و اکوتیپ قوچان در پایین ترین رتبه قرار گرفت.

    کلیدواژگان: ریشه چه، ساقه چه، سرما، کاشت پاییزه
  • فاطمه مشهدی، حمیدرضا خزاعی*، محمدرضا رمضانی مقدم صفحات 11-28

    به منظور بررسی تاثیر کم آبیاری در زمان های مختلف بر برخی ویژگی های فیزیولوژیک و کارایی مصرف آب گیاه چای ترش در دو روش کاشت، آزمایشی مزرعه‎ای به صورت اسپلیت پلات یا کرت های خرد شده در قالب طرح بلوک های کامل تصادفی با سه تکرار در ایستگاه تحقیقات کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی کاشمر در دو سال زراعی 95-1394 و 96-1395 انجام شد. تیمارهای آزمایش آبیاری به عنوان کرت اصلی در هفت سطح (تامین 100 درصد نیاز آبی (I100)، 80 درصد نیاز آبی از هشت برگی تا اواخر گلدهی (I180)، 80 درصد نیاز آبی از هشت برگی تا اوایل گلدهی (I280)، 80 درصد نیاز آبی از اوایل تا اواخر گلدهی (I380)، 60 درصد نیاز آبی از هشت برگی تا اواخر گلدهی (I160)، 60 درصد نیاز آبی از هشت برگی تا اوایل گلدهی (I260)، 60 درصد نیاز آبی از اوایل تا اواخر گلدهی (I360) و روش کاشت به عنوان کرت فرعی در دو سطح (نشاءکاری و کشت مستقیم) بودند. نتایج نشان داد که محتوای نسبی آب برگ تنها تحت تاثیر کم آبیاری و روش کاشت و عملکرد دانه تنها تحت تاثیر کم آبیاری قرار گرفت. محتوای نسبی آب برگ در روش کاشت نشایی بیشتر از کاشت مستقیم بود. بیشترین محتوای نسبی آب برگ (66/84 درصد)، عملکرد دانه (54/667 کیلوگرم در هکتار) و کاسبرگ (73/392 کیلوگرم در هکتار) در تیمار I100 حاصل شد که برای عملکرد دانه و کاسبرگ اختلاف معنی داری با تیمار I180 مشاهده نشد. اثر متقابل یا برهمکنش کم آبیاری و روش کاشت نشان داد که نشاءکاری توانست سبب بهبود میزان کلروفیل a، کلروفیل b، کاروتنویید، پرولین، عملکرد کاسبرگ و کارایی مصرف آب دانه و کاسبرگ در اکثر سطوح آبیاری گردد. بیشترین میزان کارایی مصرف آب دانه (15/0 کیلوگرم بر مترمکعب) و کاسبرگ (08/0 کیلوگرم بر مترمکعب) در تیمار I160 و روش کاشت نشایی حاصل شد و تیمار I180 و روش کاشت نشایی در جایگاه بعدی قرار داشت. با توجه به نتایج حاصله، آبیاری به میزان 80 درصد نیاز آبی از مرحله هشت برگی تا اواخر گلدهی و کشت نشایی به عنوان شیوه مدیریت مناسب جهت دستیابی به عملکرد مطلوب و حفظ منابع آب در منطقه مورد مطالعه مناسب به نظر می رسد.

    کلیدواژگان: تنش خشکی، کاروتنوئید، محتوای نسبی آب برگ، نشاءکاری
  • مسلم مصطفائی، مجید جامی الاحمدی*، معصومه صالحی، علی شهیدی صفحات 29-46

    کینوا به عنوان یک گیاه زراعی جدید، به دلیل سازگاری وسیع به شرایط مختلف اقلیمی از جمله خشکی و نیز زودرس بودن، گیاهی مناسب برای کاشت در مناطق خشک است. با هدف بررسی تراکم بهینه کینوا در سطوح مختلف آبیاری، آزمایشی به صورت فاکتوریل در قالب طرح بلوک های کامل تصادفی با سه تکرار در مزرعه تحقیقاتی دانشکده کشاورزی دانشگاه بیرجند انجام گرفت. فاکتور اول سطوح آبیاری (برمبنای 50، 75 و 100 درصد نیازآبی) و فاکتور دوم تراکم بوته در 5 سطح (40، 60، 80، 100 و 120 بوته در متر مربع) بود. صفات اندازه گیری شامل محتوای نسبی آب برگ، هدایت روزنه ای، نشت الکترولیت، تعداد انشعاب، تعداد دانه در انشعاب، وزن انشعاب، وزن هزار دانه، عملکرد دانه، کارایی مصرف آب و پروتیین دانه بود. نتایج نشان دادکه اجزای عملکرد در مواجهه با شرایط کم آبیاری، به طور معنی داری کاهش یافت، نتایج سطوح آبیاری و تراکم نشان داد که بالاترین عملکرد در 100 درصد نیاز آبی و تراکم 100 بوته به میزان 52/4268 کیلوگرم در هکتارحاصل شد و همچنین نشان داد که درسطوح آبیاری 75 درصد نیاز آبی نیز بالاترین عملکرد در تراکم 100 بوته حاصل شد و با کاهش تراکم به میزان 2/73 درصد با کاهش عملکرد همراه بود ولی در سطح 50 درصد نیاز آبی بالاترین عملکرد در تراکم 80 بوته حاصل شد که با کاهش تراکم به 40 بوته عملکرد به میزان 5/73 درصد با کاهش همراه بود. بهینه ترین تراکم در سطح آبیاری 100، 75 و 50 درصد نیاز آبی، به ترتیب 113، 105 و 80 بوته در متر مربع بود. در این تحقیق برای تعیین بهترین تراکم در سطوح مختلف آبیاری این آزمایش طراحی شد که با توجه به نتایج حاصل می توان گفت که بهینه ترین تراکم در سطح آبیاری 100 درصد نیاز آبی به میزان 113 بوته در مترمربع حاصل شده و با افزایش میزان تنش به 75 و 50 درصد نیاز آبی به ترتیب تراکم بهینه به میزان 105 و 80 بوته در متر مربع حاصل شده است.

    کلیدواژگان: پروتئین دانه، تراکم بهینه، تنش خشکی، کارایی مصرف آب، هدایت روزنه ای
  • شهاب اقبالی شاه آباد*، مهدی نصیری محلاتی، محسن جهان، معصومه صالحی صفحات 47-60

    هدف از این پژوهش تهیه مدلی برای شبیه سازی نمو کینوا (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) و واسنجی و تعیین اعتبار آن بر اساس داده های مزرعه ای است. این تحقیق در دو منطقه استان یزد با 10 آزمایش جداگانه و در قالب طرح بلوک های کامل تصادفی با 3 تکرار انجام شد. عامل‏های آزمایش شامل 5 لاین امید بخش اصلاح شده در مرکز تحقیقات شوری یزد به همراه رقم تی تی کاکا بود. نمونه گیری و یادداشت برداری ها به طور مرتب، هر سه روز یک بار و متناسب با پیشرفت مراحل فنولوژیک هر لاین انجام شد. مدلی بر اساس درجه-روز-رشد با زبان برنامه ‏نویسی FST تهیه و سپس اقدام به واسنجی و ارزیابی مدل با داده های برداشت شده از مزرعه شد. واسنجی و ارزیابی کارایی مدل با استفاده از شاخص های جذر میانگین مربعات خطا (RMSE)، ضریب تغییرات یا درصد nRMSE (CV)، شاخص توافق ویلموت (d)، کارایی مدل (ME)، میانگین انحراف از مدل (MB)، ضریب تبیین (R2)، آزمون خط 1:1 روز تا سبزشدن، گل دهی و رسیدگی فیزیولوژیک خوب برآورد شد. این مدل تعیین اعتبارشده و هم اکنون می تواند برای ارزیابی تاثیرات مختلف دمایی و فتوپریودی برای تصمیم گیری در طیف وسیعی از محیط های رشد در نظام های کشت کینوا در شرایط اقلیمی جاری و آینده مورد استفاده قرار گیرد. بنابراین از این مدل در کارهای آموزشی- تحقیقاتی و کاربردی در مزرعه می توان استفاده کرد.

    کلیدواژگان: تاریخ کاشت، FST، درجه-روز-رشد
  • سعید نواب پور*، ساسان گل چشمه، ابولفضل مازندرانی، حسین احمدی اوچ تپه صفحات 61-74

    تنش خشکی، یکی از عوامل اصلی تجمع گونه های فعال اکسیژن (ROSs) در اندام های مختلف گیاهان می باشد. این مسیله در کاهش عملکرد غلاتی همچون گندم تاثیرگذار است. سیستم آنتی اکسیدانی که شامل آنزیم ها و ژن های مختلفی است، مسیولیت سم زدایی گیاهان از ROSها را بر عهده دارد. در مطالعه حاضر، تفاوت در میزان فتوسنتزخالص (PN)، تعرق (E)، هدایت روزنه ای (gs)، کلروفیل (Chl)، میزان نسبی آب (RWC)، فعالیت برخی آنزیم ها و سطح رونوشت ژن های آنزیمی دخیل در سیستم آنتی اکسیدانی سنبله و برگ پرچمی گندم تحت شرایط آبیاری کامل (FC) و تنش خشکی (DS) از 0 تا 25 روز پس از گرده افشانی بررسی شدند. طرح آزمایشی مورد استفاده بلوک های کامل تصادفی با سه تکرار بود. متوسط میزان پتانسیل آب خاک تیمار آبیاری کامل در حد ظرفیت مزرعه و تیمار تنش خشکی بر اساس رسیدن به محدوده 70 درصد آب مورد نیاز گیاه تا حد ظرفیت مزرعه بود. سطوح رونویسی ژن های APX، DHAR، MDHAR وGR  با استفاده از qRT-PCR اندازه گیری شد. به طور کلی، سنبله به ویژه تا روز پنجم پس از گرده افشانی با ثبت مقادیر (µmol) 5/4، (mmol) 36/0، (mmol) 49، (mg/g FW) 53/0 و (%) 90 به ترتیب برای پارامترهای PN، E، gs، Chl و RWC، ظرفیت بالایی به منظور مقابله با تنش خشکی در قیاس با برگ پرچمی داشت. تنش خشکی، عامل افزایش فعالیت های آنزیمی و بیان ژن سیستم آنتی اکسیدانی، به ویژه در روزهای 15 الی 20 پس از گرده افشانی بود و سنبله نسبت به برگ پرچمی افزون بر تجمع کمتر ROSها، درصد بیش تری از فعالیت آنزیمی و بیان ژن را داشت. این نتایج حاکی از پتانسیل بیش تر سنبله نسبت به برگ پرچمی در مقابله با تنش خشکی بود.

    کلیدواژگان: برگ پرچمی، بیان ژن، سنبله، فعالیت آنزیمی، مکانیسم فتوسنتزی
  • محمد جباری اورنج*، حسین مقدم، محمدرضا جهانسوز، علی احمدی، بابک متشرع زاده صفحات 75-89

    به منظور بررسی اثر آبیاری، تاریخ کاشت و کودهای زیستی بر صفات اگرومورفولوژیک، غلظت کربن برگ، غلظت نیتروژن برگ، نسبت کربن به نیتروژن برگ و عملکرد دانه کینوا، آزمایشی در مزرعه ای واقع در شهرستان بیله سوار (منطقه مغان) استان اردبیل در دو سال زراعی 1400-1398 در قالب طرح کرت های دوبار خرد شده بر مبنای طرح پایه بلوک های کامل تصادفی با سه تکرار اجرا گردید. عامل های آزمایشی شامل آبیاری در سه سطح (آبیاری معمولی، قطع آبیاری در مرحله غنچه دهی و قطع آبیاری در مرحله پر شدن دانه) به عنوان فاکتور اصلی، تاریخ کاشت در سه سطح (5 مرداد، 20 مرداد و 5 شهریور) به عنوان فاکتور فرعی و چهار سطح کود زیستی نیتروژنه (بدون تلقیح، تلقیح بذر با ازتوباکتر، تلقیح بذر با آزوسپیریلوم و تلقیح با مخلوط ازتوباکتر و آزوسپیریلوم) به عنوان فاکتور فرعی فرعی در نظر گرفته شد. نتایج نشان داد که آبیاری معمولی با تاریخ کاشت 20 مرداد و تلقیح توام کودهای زیستی ازتوباکتر و آزوسپیریلوم بیش ترین تاثیر را بر صفات مورفولوژیک و غلظت نیتروژن برگ داشته و بیشترین عملکرد دانه (97/304 گرم بر مترمربع) نیز در همین شرایط به دست آمد. همچنین عملکرد دانه کینوا همبستگی مثبت و معنی دار با ارتفاع بوته (85/0=r)، قطر ساقه (64/0=r)، سطح برگ (86/0=r)، طول پانیکول (86/0=r) و غلظت کربن برگ (38/0=r) نشان داد.

    کلیدواژگان: آزوسپیریلوم، ازتوباکتر، تنش خشکی، مدیریت آبیاری
  • سحر افضلی، سید محمدباقر حسینی*، لیلا مامنی، علی احمدی صفحات 91-112

    خشکی از مهم ترین تنش های محیطی است که رشد و عملکرد گیاهان را تحت تاثیر قرار می دهد. استفاده از نانو ذرات می تواند به عنوان راهکاری در تعدیل اثرات تنش خشکی موثر واقع شود. بنابراین به منظور بررسی اثر الگوی کاشت، تنش خشکی و کاربرد نانوذرات سیلیس و سالیسیلیک اسید بر عملکرد دانه و اجزای عملکرد ذرت و ماش آزمایشی به صورت کرت های دو بار خردشده بر پایه طرح بلوک های کامل تصادفی در سه تکرار در سال زراعی 99-1398 در مزرعه تحقیقاتی پردیس کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی کرج، دانشگاه تهران انجام شد. عامل اصلی تنش خشکی در دو سطح آبیاری کامل (60 میلی متر تبخیر از تشتک تبخیر کلاس A) و تنش خشکی (85 میلی متر تبخیر از تشتک تبخیر کلاس A)، عامل فرعی پنج آرایش مختلف کشت: (کشت خالص ذرت (C100)، و تیمارهای کشت مخلوط ذرت 80%: ماش 40% (C80: M40)، ذرت %80: ماش 60% (C80:M60)، ذرت 50%: ماش 50 % (C50:M50) و کشت خالص ماش (V100) و عامل فرعی-فرعی چهار تیمار نانوذرات سیلیس (Si)+ سالیسیلیک اسید (Sa)، نانو ذرات سیلیس ((Si، سالیسیلیک اسید تجاری (Sa) و شاهد (بدون کود: C) بود. محلول پاشی نانو ذرات نیز به صورت برگ مصرف انجام شد. نتایج به دست آمده نشان داد که بیشترین عملکرد دانه ذرت در تیمار تک کشتی ذرت، کود ترکیبی نانو Si + Sa و آبیاری کامل به دست آمد که 179 درصد بیشتر از کمترین تیمار (کشت مخلوط C50%:M50%، شاهد و تنش خشکی) بود. بیشترین عملکرد دانه ماش نیز در تیمار تک کشتی ماش، کاربرد کود ترکیبی نانو Si + Sa و آبیاری کامل به دست آمد. در نتایج آزمایش مشاهده شد در شرایط تنش خشکی کاربرد تیمارهای تغذیه ای نسبت به عدم کاربرد آن ها منجر به افزایش عملکرد دانه و بیولوژیک در ذرت و ماش گردید. بیشترین میزان نسبت برابری زمین نیز در آبیاری کامل و کشت مخلوط 60C80:M و تیمار کودی نانو  Si + Sa(57/1) حاصل شد. با توجه به این نتایج، استفاده از نانوکودها با توجه به میزان اندک کود مصرفی و کاربرد سالیسیلیک در کنترل تنش خشکی راهکار مناسبی برای کاهش نهاده های مصرفی و دستیابی به کشاورزی پایدار می باشد. از طرفی کشت مخلوط ماش و ذرت با ایجاد تنوع و بهره وری بالاتر در استفاده از زمین به دلیل تولید LER بیشتر از یک در شرایط تنش خشکی و آبیاری کامل، می تواند در شرایط تنش خشکی سودمند باشد.

    کلیدواژگان: الگوی کشت، تک کشتی، کشاورزی پایدار، نانوکود، نسبت برابری زمین
  • احسان رضایی، حمیدرضا لاریجانی*، پورنگ کسرایی، حمیدرضا توحیدی مقدم، فرشاد قوشچی صفحات 113-126

    به منظور ارزیابی کود سیلیس بر عملکرد کمی و کیفی سورگوم علوفه ای (Sorghum bicolor L.) در شرایط تنش کم آبی، آزمایشی به صورت کرت های یک بار خردشده در قالب طرح بلوک های تصادفی در سال 1397 در شهرستان ورامین اجرا گردید. تیمارهای مورد بررسی شامل آبیاری تا حد ظرفیت زراعی (آبیاری مطلوب) و آبیاری در 60 و 45 درصد ظرفیت زراعی (به ترتیب کم آبیاری متوسط و کم آبیاری شدید) به عنوان عامل اصلی و کود سیلیس (سیلیکات پتاسیم در سه مرحله) به صورت عدم مصرف، محلول پاشی و کودآبیاری به عنوان عامل فرعی در نظر گرفته شدند. بر اساس نتایج به دست آمده بیشترین محتوی کلروفیل کل (73/1 mg g-1 FW)، محتوی نسبی آب برگ (08/88%) و هدایت روزنه ای (46/2 cm s-1) در تیمار آبیاری مطلوب و استفاده از کود سیلیس در آب آبیاری به دست آمد. بیشترین میزان پروتیین خام (41/11%) در تیمار کم آبی شدید برآورد گردید به طوری که نسبت به آبیاری مطلوب 39/1 درصد بیشتر بود. تنش کم آبی باعث افزایش اسید سیانیدریک اندام هوایی شد به نحوی که باعث افزایش 8/41 درصد محتوی اسید سیانیدریک نسبت به شرایط مطلوب آبیاری گردید. بیشترین عملکرد اندام هوایی خشک سورگوم در تیمار آبیاری مطلوب با میانگین 7/23 تن در هکتار به دست آمد که نسبت به تیمار تنش متوسط و شدید کم آبی، به ترتیب 20 و 54 درصد بیشتر بود. کود سیلیس (محلول پاشی سه در هزار، کود آبیاری 10 لیتر در هکتار) منجر به کاهش ماده خشک قابل هضم گردید ولی از طرف دیگر منجر به افزایش میزان پروتیین خام و همچنین کاهش ماده سمی اسید سیانیدریک در اندام هوایی شد و در این بین محلول پاشی کود سیلیس موثر تر از مصرف در آب آبیاری بود. بنابراین می توان پیشنهاد نمود که محلول پاشی کود سیلیس برای حفظ رشد و نمو گیاه سورگوم به ویژه در مناطق خشک و نیمه خشک مد نظر کشاورزان قرار گیرد.

    کلیدواژگان: اسید سیانیدریک، پروتئین خام، کلروفیل، ماده خشک قابل هضم، هورمون اکسین
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  • E Boroumand Rezazadeh, A Nezami *, Z Khorasani, M Khajeh Hosseini Pages 1-10
    Introduction

     Cumin is one of the most important medicinal plants in Iran and is widely used in food, health and beauty industries due to its antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Yield of some crops are higher in autumn planting compared to spring. However, low temperature and inappropriate distribution of precipitation are of factors affecting seedling emergence and establishment. So it seems that seeds with higher germination also have better emergence and establishment producing more vigorous seedlings in further growth stages. So, to success in autumn-planting of cumin, it is necessary to have ecotypes with appropriate and even emergence in low temperature and water restricted conditions. Since water is of high paramount importance in germination and lower water potentials lead to lower accessibility of water to seeds, the aim of this experiment was to study seed germination response of different cumin ecotypes to low water potentials.

    Materials and Methods

    This study was conducted to determine the germination of six cumin ecotypes under drought stress and low temperature conditions. Treatments comprised of six cumin ecotypes (Torbat-e-Heydarieh, Khaf, Sabzevar, Qaen, Quchan and RZ19) and seven water potentials (0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5 and -6 bar) induced by  PEG6000 solution according to Michel B. E. and Kaufmann (1973). Distilled water was used for control. Seeds were disinfected by sodium hypochlorite (10%) and fungicide and were rinsed with distilled water. 25 seeds were placed in each petri dish and were incubated in 13°C after PEG solution or distilled water was added. Germinated seeds were recorded daily and germination percentage and rate, plumule and radicle length was determined at the end of the incubation. Ecotype ranking was also performed to determine the most tolerant ecotypes to drought stress. Statistical analysis was done using MSTAT-C and LSD test was used for mean comparison.

    Results and Discussion

    This study results indicated that water potentials was significantly affected all studied traits (p<0.05) in a way that germination percentage and rate and plumule and radicle length decreased as water potential decreased to -6 bar. Maximum germination percentages (61%) was obtained in control. Significant differences were also found among cumin ecotypes for all traits. Khaf and Torbat-e-Heydarieh had the highest germination percentage (25% and 23%, respectively). Decreasing water potential from 0 to the -2 bar, caused 69% decrease in germination percentage of Quchan ecotype whereas reduction of 43% and 57% was found in Qaen and Sabzevar ecotypes, respectively. Difference in germination percentage among genotypes may be due to the different water absorption by them. Ecotypes had different germination rate in water potentials (P≤0.01). Although germination rate was negatively affected by decreasing water potential, percentage of reduction was different among ecotypes in a way that Torbat-e-Heydarieh and Khaf showed the lowest (61 and 67%) and Quchan and RZ19 the highest reduction of germination rate (86%) in -4 bar compared to control (0 bar). Plumule and radical length were decreased as drought stress was increased . Decreasing water potential from 0 o -4 bar caused a 76% reduction in radical length. Significant difference was found among ecotypes according to radical length in a way that Khaf and Quchan had the highest and lowest radical length, respectively.

    Conclusion

    On the basis of ecotypes ranking for evaluated traits, Khaf and Torbat-e-Heydarieh indicated more tolerance to drought stress whereas Quchan was found as a sensitive ecotype.

    Keywords: Autumn planting, Cold, Plumule, Radicle
  • F Mashhadi, H. R Khazaei *, M. R Ramezani Moghaddam Pages 11-28
    Introduction

    The increasing demand for medicinal plants in traditional medicine as well as the pharmaceutical industry has created the need for some plants to be grown commercially, but the lack of soil moisture poses a serious threat to their production. Planting method can affect the emergence and growth rate of crop and lead to decrease water consumption and increase irrigation water efficiency as yield increases. Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) is one of the drought tolerant plants. Saving water consumption by cultivating drought tolerant plants has been proposed as a strategy to combat drought. It should be noted, however, that irrigation without proper planning can reduce the growth and production of crops. In this regard, determining time of deficit irrigation with minimum damage is an appropriate solution that achieves optimum yield while saving water consumption. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different irrigation regimes and planting method on some physiological traits, yield and water use efficiency of Roselle plant.

    Materials and Methods

    The experiment was conducted as split plot based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications at the Research Farm of Kashmar Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Station, during two growth seasons 2016 and 2017. Irrigation (in seven levels i.e. I100: 100% crop water requirement (CWR), I180: 80% CWR from 8-leaf stage to end of flowering, I280: 80% CWR from 8-leaf stage to beginning of flowering, I380: 80% CWR from beginning to end of flowering, I160: 60% CWR from 8-leaf stage to end of flowering, I260: 60% CWR from 8-leaf stage to  beginning of flowering, I360: 60% CWR from beginning to end of flowering) and planting method (in two levels i.e. direct and indirect) were in main plots and sub plots, respectively. In the transplanting method, the seeds were sown in the transplant tray on March 10, 2016 and 2017 and transplanted to the farm in four-leaf stage. Direct cultivation was also carried out in April, in 2.5 × 7 meter plots at a depth of 1.5 cm.In order to measure physiological traits, sampling from the youngest leaves of plants under stress and control conditions was carried out at the maximum flowering stage. Physiological traits including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoid, leaf relative water content and proline content were measured using these leaves. At the harvest time, two square meters of each plot were harvested. Then, seed and calyx yield were measured and using the measured amount of water consumed, water use efficiency based on seed and calyx were calculated.Data were analyzed with SAS software; obtained averages compared with using Tukey's Studentized Range (HSD) Test at the 5% probability level.

    Results and Discussion

    The results showed leaf relative water content was affected only by irrigation and planting method and seed and calyx yields were affected only by irrigation. The leaf relative water content in seedling planting method was higher than direct planting. The highest relative leaf water content (84.66%), seed (667.54 kg ha-1) and calyx yield (392.73 kg ha-1) were obtained in I100 treatment that for yield had no significant difference with I801 treatment. The lowest these traits were also obtained in I360 treatment.The interaction effect between irrigation and planting method was significant on chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, leaf proline content, seed and calyx water use efficiency. In most irrigation levels, transplanting improved these traits compared to direct sowing. I100 and transplanting treatment had the highest chlorophyll a (0.31 μmol g-1 fw), chlorophyll b (0.16 μmol g-1 fw) and carotenoids (0.56 μmol g-1 fw) and I360 and transplanting treatment had the highest leaf proline content (7.95 μmol g-1 fw). The highest seed (0.15 kg m-3) and calyx (0.08 kg m-3) water use efficiency were obtained in I160 and transplanting treatment and I180 and transplanting treatment was located in the second level. I360 and direct planting method had the lowest seed (0.06 kg m-3) and calyx (0.03 kg m-3) water use efficiency.

    Conclusion

    The results of this study revealed that deficit irrigation at 80% of the crop water requirement from 8-leaf stage to the end of flowering along with transplanting method was more effective in saving irrigation water with a good yield of the Roselle plant compare to treatment of 100% of the crop water requirement.

    Keywords: Carotenoid, Drought stress, Leaf relative water content, Transplanting
  • M Mostafaee, M Jami Al-Ahmadi *, M Salehi, A Shahidi Pages 29-46
    Introduction

    Quinoa is a dicotyledonous plant from the Amaranthaceae family, with favorable nutritional value and a high potential for growth and production in adverse environmental conditions. Despite being three carbon, it has high water consumption efficiency and as a new crop, due to its wide adaptation to different environment conditions such as salinity and drought, as well as being premature, it is suitable for planting in arid and desert areas and has many factors. Genetic and environmental factors such as genotype, density, arrangement and planting date, soil salinity, and drought stress affect yield. Among these, drought is one of the most important non-living stresses that cause great damage to crops and horticulture in the world every year. And especially Iran, which is considered an arid and semi-arid country. The effect of moisture stress on plants varies depending on which stage of plant growth occurs and plants can work through various mechanisms such as reducing growth parameters, closing pores, reducing photosynthesis, changing regulatory mechanisms of ion transport, and increasing activity. Antioxidant enzymes cope with drought stress to some extent, although such mechanisms are energy-intensive and cause a decline in performance.

    Materials and MethodsIn

    order to investigate the optimal density of quinoa at different levels of irrigation, a factorial experiment was conducted based on completely randomized design with three replications at the research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Birjand University. The first factor was irrigation levels (based on 50, 75, and 100% water requirement) and the second factor was plant density at 5 levels (40, 60, 80, 100, and 120 plants m-2). Measurement traits included relative leaf water content, stomatal conductance, electrolyte leakage, number of branches, number of grains per branch, branch weight, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, water use efficiency, and grain protein.

    Results and Discussion

    The results showed that the yield components in response to low irrigation conditions were significantly reduced, so that the highest 1000-seed weight, number of branches, number of seeds per branch, branch weight and yield at the level of 100% water requirement were, respectively, 0.1 (g), 1368.4 (branching per square meter), 132.64 (grains per branching), 2377.8 (grams per square meter) and 3265.25 (kg ha-1) have been obtained. The maximum orifice conductivity measured at 35.66 (mol CO2 per square meter) was obtained at the beginning of flowering at 100% water requirement. Also, with decreasing irrigation level, physiological traits including relative leaf water content decreased significantly and traits such as electrolyte leakage and grain protein increased. The optimal density at the irrigation level of 100, 75, and 50% of water requirement were 113, 105, and 80 plants per square meter, respectively. The interaction of irrigation levels and density also showed that the highest yield was 100% of water requirement and density of 100 plants with 4226.52 kg ha-1. The results showed that at the irrigation levels of 100 and 75% of the water requirement, the highest yield was obtained at a density of 100 plants and with a decrease in density at these levels by 61.2 and 73.2%, respectively, was associated with a decrease in yield, but at the level of 50%. The highest yield was obtained at a density of 80 plants, which was accompanied by a decrease in yield to 40 plants with a yield of 73.5%. The results also show an increase in optimal density with increasing irrigation level, so that the most optimal density at the irrigation level of 100% of the water requirement is 113 plants per square meter and with increasing the stress to 75 and 50% of the water requirement, respectively, density Optimal yields of 105 and 80 plants per square meter have been achieved.

    ConclusionIn

    general, the results show that lack of moisture has an adverse effect on quinoa yield such as 1000-seed weight, branch weight, number of seeds per branch, and number of branches in the main inflorescence and reduces the optimal plant density.

    Keywords: Drought stress, optimal density, Seed protein, stomatal conductance, Water use efficiency
  • Sh Eghbalishahabad *, M Nasiri Mahalati, M Jahan, M Salehi Pages 47-60
    Introduction

    Climate change is rapidly degrading the conditions of crop production. For instance, increasing salinization and aridity is forecasted to increase in most parts of the world. As a consequence, new stress-tolerant species and genotypes must be identified and used for future agriculture. Stress-tolerant species exist but are actually underutilized and neglected. Quinoa, scientifically known as Chenopodium quinoa Willd. is a member of the Amaranthaceae family. Promoting the cultivation and nutrition of quinoa will diversify food products in the country, sustainable production, increase farmers' incomes and provide part of the community's food needs. Crop simulation models have been used for various studies such as selecting the appropriate cultivar, determining the best planting date, predicting the effect of diversity and climate change on growth. Field research requires a lot of time and money, while computer simulation models can save time and money by conducting extensive experimental simulations.

    Materials and Methods

    This research was conducted in two regions of Yazd province with 10 separate experiments in the form of a randomized complete block design with 3 replications. Experimental factors included 5 promising modified lines in Yazd Salinity Research Center with Titicaca cultivar. The lines consisted of four intermediate maturity lines, numbered 1 (NSRCQE), 2 (NSRCQC), 3 (NSRCQD), and 6 (NSRCQA), one late maturity line numbered 4 (NSRCQB), and the early maturity cultivar Titicaca numbered 5. Sampling and note-taking were performed regularly, once every three days, in proportion to the progress of the phenological stages of each line. A model based on degree-day-growth was prepared in FST language. In preparing the length table, due to the short day of Quinoa, for all lines in the model up to 12.5 hours, the development rate was one, and after 13.8 hours, the development rate was zero. The base temperature in the model was 2 °C. Then, the model was calibrated and evaluated with data taken from the field.

    Results and Discussion

    RMSE (CV) coefficient of variation between 7 to 12%, root mean square error (RMSE) between 4.4 to 6.4 days, Wilmot agreement index (d) between 0.99 to 1, model efficiency (ME) between 0.96  to 0.98, the mean deviation from the model (MB) was between 0.05 to 0.08 and the coefficient of determination (R2) was between 92 % to 98%. These values indicated a good estimate of the day to flowering of quinoa with the model written in FST language, and the values of day to flowering simulated gained the necessary validity. The coefficient of variation of nRMSE (CV) is between 6.8 to 8.6%, the root mean square error (RMSE) is between 6.2 and 8.7 days, the Wilmot agreement index (d) is between 0.75 and 0.92, The mean deviation from the model (MB) was between 0.05 to 0.08 and the coefficient of determination (R2) was between 92% and 98%. These values indicated a good estimate of the day to physiological maturity with the model written in the FST language, and the day values to the simulated physiological maturity gained the necessary validity. Calibration and evaluation of model efficiency using root mean square error (RMSE), coefficient of variation or nRMSE percentage (CV), Wilmot agreement index (d), model efficiency (ME), and mean model deviation (MB), coefficient of explanation (R2), line test 1: 1 day until germination, flowering and good physiological maturity was estimated.

    Conclusion

    The results of this study indicated that, the quinoa model prepared for quinoa in terms of degree-day-growth well predicts the developmental stages (emergence, flowering and maturation) of this plant in terms of maturity (early, medium and late) and can be its help determined the appropriate planting date in different areas. This calibrated sub-model can now be used to evaluate different temperature and photoperiod effects for decision making in a wide range of growth environments in quinoa cultivation systems in current and future climatic conditions. Therefore, this sub-model can be used in educational-research and applied work in the field.

    Keywords: FST, Growing degree days, Sowing date
  • S Navabpour *, S Golcheshmeh, A Mazandarani, H Ahmadi-Ochtapeh Pages 61-74
    Introduction

    Drought stress and consequent lack of available water for plants is one of the main causes of accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in various organs of plants, which is effective in reducing the yield of cereals such as wheat. The antioxidant system, which contains various enzymes and genes, is responsible for removing and detoxifying plants from ROS. Unfortunately, genes responding to drought stress and their enzymatic activities associated with spike and flag leaf of wheat have received less attention. Therefore, in the present study, photosynthetic parameters, key enzymes of the antioxidant system, and expression analysis of some genes involved in this system under field capacity (FC) and drought stress (DS) conditions in spike and flag leaves of wheat were investigated.

    Materials and Methods

    The present study was performed in Azadshahr Research Center, Golestan Province, Iran in 2021. The wheat cultivar used in this study was Qaboos. This cultivar was cultivated under two experimental conditions of field capacity and drought stress in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the field. In the present study, differences in net photosynthesis (PN) rate, transpiration (E), stomatal conductance (gs), chlorophyll (Chl), relative water content (RWC), and the activity of APX, DHAR, MDHAR, and GR enzymes involved in the antioxidant system of flag leaf and spike of wheat were examined under field capacity and drought stress conditions. Transcription levels of APX, DHAR, MDHAR, and GR genes were measured using qRT-PCR under drought stress and field capacity conditions. Flag leaf and spike of Wheat for photosynthetic parameters and enzymatic activities at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 and relative gene expression at 0, 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 days after anthesis (DAA) were harvested. The recorded data were analyzed by analysis of variance and all analyzes were performed by SPSS software. Mean differences were compared using Duncan's multiple range test at 5% probability level.

    Results and DiscussionIn

    general, the spike had a better capacity to maintain net photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll, and relative water content under drought stress conditions. This superiority reached its peak on the fifth day after anthesis. The enzymatic activity of the antioxidant system was normal under field capacity conditions. However, with the application of drought stress, APX, DHAR, MDHAR, and GR enzymes were affected in both spike and flag leaf of wheat and their activity increased, which indicates more activity of the antioxidant system in spikes and flag leaf of wheat for controls the level of ROS. After more days of grain filling, the activity of enzymes increased, and finally, after the plant entered the senescence stage, the activity of enzymes decreased to some extent. With drought stress, the antioxidant system in spike, especially from the 10th day after anthesis onwards, had a better performance. However, enzymatic activity in flag leaves under drought stress was not significantly different from field capacity conditions. Transcriptional levels of APX, DHAR, MDHAR, and GR genes associated with the antioxidant system increased under drought stress compared to field capacity conditions. It seems that the increase in enzymatic activity simultaneously with the increase in the level of transcription of the genes of the antioxidant system in the spikes and flag leaves of wheat is to counteract the oxidative damage.

    ConclusionIn

    the present study, spikes of wheat played a more important role in responding to water deficiency through the antioxidant system than its flag leaf. The results of this study showed a high potential of the spike compared to flag leaf in the face of drought stress and this results in future breeding programs in wheat can play a key role in selecting drought-resistant cultivars with high yield.

    Keywords: Enzyme Activity, Flag leaf, Gene expression, Photosynthetic mechanism, spike
  • M Jabbari Oranj *, H Moghaddam, M. R Jahansuz, A Ahmadi, B Motesharezadeh Pages 75-89
    Introduction

    The most important problem that threatens food security of any country and the world is the lack of adequate water resources, so one of the ways to deal with this crisis is to use plants with low water requirements and high water use efficiency. Among the plants, we can name Quinoa, which is one of the plants that has been less studied and exploited in Iran. Since the planting date has the greatest impact on the physiological characteristics of the crop compared to other cropping treatments, so choosing the appropriate planting date can also create the greatest correlation between plant growth trends and climatic conditions. Undoubtedly, the use of biological fertilizers, in addition to the positive effects it has on all soil properties, is also economically, environmentally and socially fruitful and can be a suitable and desirable alternative to chemical fertilizers. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the response to deficit irrigation, planting date and application of different biofertilizers in quinoa.

    Materials and Methods

    This experiment was carried out during two cropping years 2019 and 2020 in a farm located in Moghan region. The site has latitude of 39◦27 N, a longitude of 48◦12 E and is 120 m above mean sea level, with an average annual rainfall of 250-300 mm. In this experiment, Titicaca cultivar of quinoa was cultivated in summer in the form of a double split plot design based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Experimental factors include irrigation at three levels (Conventional irrigation, Irrigation cut-off in budding stage and Irrigation cut-off in seed filling stage) as a main factor, planting date at three levels (27 July, 11  and 27 August) as a sub-factor and four levels of nitrogen biofertilizer (without inoculation, seed inoculation with Azotobacter, seed inoculation with Azospirillum and inoculation with a mixture of Azotobacter and Azospirillum) were considered as a sub-sub-factor. Plant height, stem diameter and panicle length in each plant were measured at the physiological maturity stage by randomly selecting 10 plants using a ruler with millimeter accuracy. Leaf area was measured by selecting 5 plants from each plot randomly and with the model Leaf area meter Li-cor. At the end of the growing season, the product of two middle planting lines with a length of 4 meters was harvested by observing the half-meter margin effect and after drying in a ventilated oven at 70 °C for 24 hours, grain yield was determined. Leaf carbon concentration was estimated by dry combustion with air flow in an electric furnace, Kjeldahl method (Sharpe et al., 2001) was used to measure nitrogen concentration. Experimental data were analyzed before analysis of variance for homogeneity of test errors through Bartlett test and then analyzed using SAS (9.1) software and comparison of means at 5% probability level using Duncan multi-range test.

    Results and Discussion

    The results showed that conventional irrigation with planting date of 27 August and inoculation of Azotobacter and Azospirillum biofertilizers had the best effect in terms of morphological traits and leaf nitrogen concentration and The highest grain yield (304.97 g.m-2) was obtained from conventional irrigation treatment with planting date of 27 August and inoculation of biofertilizers of Azotobacter and Azospirillum. Also, quinoa seed yield had a positive and significant correlation with plant height (r = 0.85), stem diameter (r =0. 64), leaf area (r = 0.86), panicle length (r = 0.86) and leaf carbon concentration (r = 0.38) showed.

    Conclusion

    The results of this study showed though conventional irrigation with planting date of 20 August and inoculation of Azotobacter and Azospirillum biofertilizers had the highest number of studied traits, especially grain yield (304.97 g.m-2), but with interruption of irrigation treatment at the stage of seed filling with planting date of 20 August and inoculation of biofertilizers were included in a statistical group, so in terms of the importance of water consumption, it can be said that in conditions of limited water resources, irrigation cut-off treatment in the stage of grain filling has the most favorable results.

    Keywords: Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Drought stress, irrigation management
  • S Afzali, S. M. B Hosseini *, L Ma&#, Mani, A Ahmadi Pages 91-112
    Introduction

    Intercropping is an ecological crop management method in which at least two plant species grow simultaneously on a field. Increased land productivity in intercropping of cereals and legumes is mainly due to the positive interaction between cereals and legumes in the rhizosphere, which increases the efficiency of soil resource utilization, especially nitrogen (N). Mixed cultivation of legumes with cereals provides higher land use efficiency, lower water consumption, and greater environmental benefits than cereal monocultures. Salicylic acid (SA) is a natural plant hormone that affects various physiological and biochemical functions in plants, because it can act as a regulatory and mediating signal in the plant's response to abiotic stresses such as drought. In recent years, nanotechnology has also been introduced into agriculture, and several benefits of nanoparticle applications such as nano-silica (nSiO2) have been reported that can be used to increase the supply of nutrients to agricultural products. The aim of this study was to determine the possible role of growth regulators of salicylic acid and nanosilica particles (nSiO2) on crop yield in maize and mung bean intercropping under drought stress conditions.

    Materials and Methods

    The experiment was conducted in 2019-2020 cropping year in the research farm of Agriculture and Natural Resources Campus, the University of Tehran, located in Karaj. The experiment was performed in the form of split- split plots based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The main plot was drought stress at two levels of full irrigation and cessation of irrigation, the sub plots included different intercropping arrangements of maize and mung bean: (maize monoculture (C100), maize 80: mung bean 40 (C80:M40), maize 80: mung bean 60 (C80:M60), maize 50: mung bean 50 (C50:M50) and mung bean monoculture (M100) and the sub-sub plots were four treatments of silica nanoparticles +salicylic acid, silica nanoparticles, commercial salicylic acid and control. Statistical calculations were performed by SAS 9.2 and Excel software in this study. The mean comparison was performed by LSD test and the probability level was considered 95% in all analyzes.

    Results and Discussion

    The results showed that the highest maize grain yield was obtained in the monoculture treatment, Si + Sa combined fertilizer and full irrigation, which was 179% higher than the lowest treatment (C50:M50 intercropping, control and drought stress). The highest biological yield of maize was obtained in the complete irrigation and Si + Sa fertilizer treatment under monoculture conditions. The lowest value of this index was observed in the treatments of drought stress, control without fertilizer and C50:M50 intercropping conditions. The highest yield of mung bean seeds was obtained in monoculture of mung bean, application of Si + Sa fertilizer and complete irrigation. The highest biological yield belonged to mung bean monoculture treatment, nano Si + Sa compound fertilizer and complete irrigation. The lowest was obtained in C50:M50 and C80:M60 intercropping treatments, non- fertilizer application and drought stress. Also, the highest land equivalent ratio was obtained in full irrigation and C80M60 intercropping and nano Si + Sa fertilizer treatment (1.57).

    ConclusionIn

    general, the results of this study showed that, drought stress reduced all the studied traits. While intercropping with increasing diversity had a significant effect on important agronomic traits under both optimal irrigation and drought stress conditions. LER values were more than one in intercropping crops that indicated higher ground productivity in these planting patterns than in monoculture of crops. The highest LER value was obtained in C80:M60 intercropping treatment under non- stress and application of nano Si + Sa. Silica nanoparticles and salicylic acid fertilizers had a positive effect on grain and biological yield of both plants as well as land equivalent ratio and reduce the negative effects of drought stress on plants and can be used as suitable approach to achieve sustainable agriculture goals.

    Keywords: Land equivalent, Monoculture, Nanofertilizer, Planting arrangements, Sustainable agriculture
  • E Rezaei, H. R Larijani *, P Kasraie, H. R Tohidi-Moghadam, F Ghooshchi Pages 113-126
    Introduction

    The quantity and quality of forage plants are beneficial and useful due to their role in animal husbandry, reproduction and other livestock products. Due to the limitation of water resources, water-deficit as a significant biotic stress is the most severe threat to world food security and is responsible for many yield losses. Plants constantly modify their physiological processes in response to various biotic and abiotic stress to regulate the balance between plant growth and defense response. Many researchers have documented that plant nutrients are involved in biological processes of plants. It has been stated that the use of silicon by increasing the ability to absorb water can be useful to improve drought tolerance of sorghum, sorghum can with the help of silicon extract more water from dry soil and maintain more stomatal conductance.

    Materials and MethodsIn

    order to evaluate the effect of silicon fertilizer on the quantitative and qualitative yield of forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) under water-deficit stress, a split-plot experiment was performed in a randomized complete block design in at the research farm of Varamin, Iran in 2017-2018. The treatments included irrigation in three levels irrigation in field capacity and irrigation at 60% and 45% of field capacity (which were named as full irrigation, moderate and severe water-deficit stress, respectively) as the main plot and silicon fertilizer (Potassium Silicate) in three levels, non-use (control), silicon foliar spraying (three per thousand), and silicon fertigation (10 L ha-1) as the subplot. Silicon spraying with a ratio of three per thousand and silicon irrigation fertilizer at the rate of 10 liters per hectare were considered in three stages.

    Results and Discussion

    The highest (4.51) and lowest (2.88) leaf area index were achieved in silicon fertigation treatment under full irrigation and none fertilizer treatment and severe water-deficit conditions, respectively. Based on the obtained results, the highest total chlorophyll content (1.73 mg g-1 FW), relative water content of leave (88.08%), stomatal conductance (2.46 cm s-1) were achieved in fertigation treatment under full irrigation conditions. The results show that the amount of electrolyte leakage increased due to water-deficit stress, but silicon fertilizer decreased the adverse effect of stress conditions. The lowest level of electrolyte leakage (341.3 µS cm-1) was obtained from the full irrigation and fertigation treatment. The highest crude protein (11.41%) which was higher than full irrigation condition by 1.39% related to severe water-deficit stress. Water-deficit stress caused the increase of cyanuric acid in shoot and increased the content of cyanuric acid by 41.8% compared to full irrigation conditions. Silicon fertilizer led to a decrease in digestible dry matter under water stress conditions, but on the other hand, it led to an increase in the amount of crude protein and also a decrease in the amount of toxic cyanide acid in the shoot production. The results of this study show that the use of silicon fertilizer in all irrigation regimes increased the auxin content compared to the non-use of silicon fertilizer. The highest content of auxin was achieved in the conditions of full irrigation and fertigation treatment (131.4 nmol g-1 of protein) followed by foliar fertilizer treatment (128.2 nmol g-1 of protein). The highest sorghum dry matter production was obtained from the full irrigation treatment with an average of 23.7 ton ha-1, which was 20 and 54% higher than the treatment of moderate and severe water-deficit treatment, respectively.

    ConclosionIn

    general, it can be concluded that silicon fertilizer in the form of foliar spraying should be considered by farmers to maintain the natural growth and development of sorghum plant, especially in areas arid and semi-arid. However, its widespread use in other farm crops needs to be investigated.

    Keywords: Auxin, Chorophyll, Crude protein, cyanidric acid, Dry matter digestibility