نشریه جامعه شناسی تاریخی
سال چهاردهم شماره 2 (پاییز و زمستان 1401)

The Islamic Maghreb owes its civilization to its geographical location, which, in addition to simultaneous access to the Mediterranean Sea and Europe and the pristine lands of sub-Saharan Africa, has also benefited from Egypt's proximity to the East Gate. Such a situation has provided a favorable opportunity for business activities, and of course, it is natural that the degree of actualization of this capacity has always been a function of other variables, especially political variables. The study of the evolution of trade in the Maghreb in the Middle Ages (5th to 10th centuries AH) confronts us with a different phenomenon; in this period, despite the change of governments, political decentralization and constant war, we face the growth of all trade indicators. The present article examines this contradiction; It is argued that the existence of dynamic markets, powerful coinage, and the easy and extensive movement of merchant caravans are clear signs of medieval trade flourishing in medieval Maghreb, and The reasons, in addition to the geographical location, are that the governments of the region knew that with strong treasuries, they would have more and more satisfied military power and strength to rely on political conflicts, and the realization of a rich treasury will not be possible except through prosperous trade. This article has finally been able to show the existence of this dual political-economic life, so that we always see the consistent policy of the governments of this region in supporting trade facilitation in spite of all political crises.

The Iranian musical community has experienced actions and conflicts in different historical periods and has passed more conflicts than other professions and social groups. The conflicts of musicians with other institutions of society, including government, religion, people, and even the intra-group conflicts of musicians in different periods became stronger and weaker. The main issue in the present study is to find the types of social conflicts of the musical community of the first Islamic centuries (Umayyad and the first Abbasid Era) in which Iran was also under the control of these governments. During the early Islamic centuries, a new brilliant page of the Middle-Eastern music history was thumbed over following the support and attention by the various social classes and, atop of it, Abbasid Caliphs. The purpose of this study is to identify and analyze types of intra-group and extra-group conflicts based on social conflicts theory. The main question is what social interactions has the musical society of the first centuries of Islam been involved with? And how many groups can these conflicts be divided into? The results of this study show that the layers involved in the conflicts with musicians are in two main groups: intra-group and extra-group. And the intra-group conflicts of musicians, including their classification, the conflicts between traditionalists and modernists, the competitions and debates, the critique and judgment that caused the growth and dynamism of the musical community of that period. The study employed a descriptive-analytical method.

Dreaming and dreaming to justify the actions and behaviors of kings and rulers to instill it in society is very important in Iranian historiography. Dream and fantasy analysis is one of the approaches to reading the text, i.e., semiotics. The main purpose of this reading is to reconstruct the function of non-linguistic signaling systems for actions and behaviors in history. Dreams and dreams are among the important semantic signs and have a special place in Iranian historiography. The application of this matter in historical sources and the attention of rulers and masters of power to it can be distinguished in the two axes of legitimacy, justification and validation of the actions and deeds of kings. The importance of the dream and its interpretation in the Holy Qur'an, religious narrations and Sufism was effective in the attention of historians to this issue as a justification against objective and rational arguments. This is more common during the Mongol rule due to the crisis in the religious legitimacy of the rulers. With this approach, the following questions can be asked: What are the reasons for expressing dreams and fantasies in the works of historians of the Mongol and Timurid periods? What was the use of dreams and justifications for the Iranian society in the eyes of the rulers of the Mongol and Timurid eras? Relying on the method of historical research and reviewing the evidence, it was concluded that: Although the expression of imagination and dreams has always existed in historiography, but in the middle history of Iran is more widespread. The result of the research shows that the user's dream and imagination had a justification for instilling the will of the kings and rulers and legitimizing the government to the Iranian society of this period.

The present work aims to study and analyze the advent of new middle class in Iran via discussing lifestyle indexes in the first Pahlavi press. The main questions of this article are: How can we describe and analyze the advent of new middle class and its related lifestyle via press study? What are the elements and indexes of new middle class lifestyle in the first Pahlavi era? To carry out my research in this direction, I plan to employ historical and content analysis methods and analyze four significant press of that time (“Alame Nesvan”, “Baladiye”, “Shafaghe Sorkh” and, “tajadode Iran”).Based on the findings of my research, new middle class members in the first Pahlavi era have their own distinctive lifestyle which is reflected in the different press. The review of these press indicates individualism, consumerism, considering body and its manipulation, highlighting leisure time in the daily life and, cultural consumerism as the most crucial elements of new middle class lifestyle in the first Pahlavi era.

Given the need for international relations and the role of customs law in the development of any country, the present article recognizes the customs provisions in Iran's agreements with Russia. This article describes the results of customs exemptions in the contracts concluded with Russia during the reign of Nasser al-Din Shah (1267-1275 AH / 1848-1896 AD) and Muzaffar al-Din Shah (1275 -1285 AH/ 1896-1907 AD) by descriptive-analytical method and using library documents and resources. based on Wallerstein's theory of the world order. The main question of the research is why in the agreements concluded with Russia; was the country's customs revenue considered to guarantee Iran's debts? It is assumed that Iran's economic weakness and Russia's lack of confidence in the financial strength of the governments in power in Iran, there was a doubt that if Iran does not fulfill its obligations under the agreements, or short, how to compensate for the damage?During this period, due to the weakness of Iran's political and economic structures, various countries and Russia included provisions in the amount of customs tariffs and tax exemptions in their peace treaties and trade agreements with Iran. Gradually, the exemption from customs duties on imported goods, Iran's handicrafts and workshops became defenseless in competition with imported products. Guaranteeing the payment of customs revenues as a backing of obligations, which was one of the most important revenues of the Qajar government and always poured large figures into the treasury of the government, could solve Russia's doubts about paying Iran's debts. They became the third government. Although the country expanded trade relations with Russia due to its strategic position, trade in northern Iran was monopolized by Russia. With the establishment of the Ministry of Finance and the annexation of customs to it in 1911 (1329 AH) the customs structure was improved, but still prevented tariff protections for domestic products. Iran was one of the peripheral countries during this period.

The social, economic and political contexts of the Abbasid era have given rise to many movements throughout history. The series of Sadat movements and especially Hassanian has occupied a significant part of these movements. The subject of this research is to identify and analyze the sociological contexts of Hassani movements according to economic characteristics. This research analyzes Hassani movements from a sociological perspective using a library method. These movements can be categorized as traditional movements. Historical evidence suggests that economic benefits have historically been significant to Sadat. It was not socially acceptable for Sadat to earn a living through agriculture or labor. Instead of farming, which was the occupation of the masses, Sadat deserved to earn a living through war, leadership, sovereignty, and superiority over other people. In fact, the Hassanids realized that with the government they could overcome their financial disputes with their Hosseini brothers; And to fulfill in practice Abdullah's long-standing wish to continue the Imamate in the Hassani branch; And to overcome the financial and economic possibilities of the Islamic Caliphate Among the ideals of the Hassanian movement are the legitimacy and superiority of the sons of Imam Hassan, the illegitimacy of the Abbasids, economic justice, adherence to the Book of God and the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH) and the need for the Imam to rise up against the ruler.

There are many differences in opinion about determining the origin of contemporary Iranian history. Throughout the Pahlavi period, efforts were made to identify the coup of 1921 and the rise of Reza Shah as the origin of contemporary Iranian history. By drawing a dark picture of the general situation in Iran during the Qajar period, especially the critical situation of the country on the Eve of the coup of 1921, the Pahlavi supporters tried to introduce Reza Shah as the founder of modern Iran and the coup of 1921 as the origin of contemporary Iranian history. The main problem of this article is whether the coup of 1921 and the rise of Reza Shah is the origin of contemporary Iranian history? Evaluating and criticizing the ideas presented about Reza Shah by official historians of the Pahlavi period as well as some independent historians, the author argues that the origin of contemporary Iranian history is not the coup of 1921 or the reign of Reza Shah. Because the modernizations of Reza Shah's period, despite their vast and diversity, contained contradictions that makes Iranian society to internal tensions and crises, and the type of Reza Shah's monarchy belonged to the pre-constitutional period in terms of the logic of historical change and could never include Iran enter to a new era of civilization. Therefore, the origin of contemporary Iranian history is not the coup of 1921, but the Constitutional Revolution.

The various methods of resistance of subordinates against the ruling groups is one of the subjects that has received less attention in Iranian history studies. During the Qajar period, the Thiol regulations provided opportunities for the villagers to obtain concessions from the Thiol owners and governors of the provinces. This is our question: how did the custom of granting Thiols lead to disputes and conflicts between the ruling groups, and how did the subjects benefit from these disputes? The Qajar court was always faced with many frauds by provincial rulers and bureaucrats in sending taxes to the treasury, and by granting Thiol to some of its agents, removed part of the lands from the reach of provincial governors, a situation that the governors of the provinces did not like. On the other hand, the court was also faced with the fraud of Thiol owners. Naser al-Din Shah announced that a farm will be thiol only if its farmers are satisfied. In this way, it was possible for the subjects to choose a fairer person between the Thiol owner and the ruler of the province or between two Thiol owners, or to change the Thiol owners’ agents or to correct their behavior. This research has been done with the causal method and relying on original documents, especially the documents of the Majlese Tahqiqe Mazalem. The theoretical framework of the research based on Patricia Crone's opinions about the characteristics of pre-modern governments. The purpose of this research is to clarify a neglected part of the history of subordinates and to explain their behavior towards the ruling elites in order to moderate exploitation .Before this, no study has been done on this topic.’

Today, some scholars believe in which a matriarchal structure, hereditary succession is traced to a matrilineality line. The residence is matrilocal and all the essentials’ items are in the hands of women. But today we live in societies with the patriarchal and androcentric structure. Some feminist scholars believe that if a matriarchy society existed in prehistory, it may be possible to hope for the end of today's patriarchal structure. Various materials and deposits such as skeletal data and grave goods can be used to search for women, their way of life and their status in the past. With the help of research on women’s burial and how it is done in a burial site and with the help of the findings of the graves; hypotheses can be made as to the existence or absence of a matriarchal structure in that society. In this article, with the help of library research, we give a brief history of the emergence of the hypothesis of matriarchal societies and some of its features. Then, with a descriptive-analytical method and using field research conducted, we express the interpretations obtained from the findings in some burial sites in Southwest Asia. The findings indicate that there should not consider just one form of structure for all prehistoric societies in this region, and on the other hand, with all the research done in this field, there is still no firm and conclusive findings about the existence of matriarchal societies in the prehistoric area of Southwest Asia.

This article explores the genesis and consolidation of the Qom religious seminary in modern Iran. It’s argued that the emergence of this religious institution in Iran as a rival to seminaries in Iraq’s shrine cities, was the result of transformations within the Shia clergy and material forces in the Middle East. Contrary to the orthodox view that seeks a transcendental origin for this institution, it’s argued here that the almost simultaneous emergence of the modern state in Iran and Qom seminary was not a paradoxical process. It's argued here that following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the gradual decline of religious seminaries in Najaf and Karbala, Shia ulama were in need of a new place to survive. That material change encouraged them to relocate to Iran and work with a state that was deemed secular

Until the end of the Qajar period, the educational system was more in line with the traditional system. No significant steps were taken in the field of education. 
Applying modern education in Iranian society made a fundamental change in the field of teaching and training, during which new-style schools were built in various regions. 
Due to the predominant nomadic and rural texture in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari region, the government faced with serious challenges to implement the modern education system. Accordingly, local Khans and headmen of villages, as influencers in Bakhtiari society, had important impacts on the education by relying on their socio-political positions. 
This research follows a descriptive-analytical method based on documents and library studies.
 It will address the question of what role the local Khans and headmen of villages played in establishing new schools in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari region and what challenges they faced in this direction. 
The findings of the research show that Bakhtiari Khans were influenced by society. They encouraged their children to have higher education; In order to increase the level of literacy, they set up schools even at their own expense. 
The local headmen of villages, who mediated between the government and the people, also played an influential role in the construction, reconstruction, and financing schools.</div>